Ch 8 Cultural Currents: 13th to 17th Centuries Notes

Exploring Society: India and Beyond
——————————————
Social Science Textbook for
Grade 8 | Part 2
Notes
———
Chapter 8

Chapter 8 Cultural Currents: 13th to 17th Centuries is a very lengthy chapter. Still we have tried really hard to create short notes that are really easy to learn and revise.

To get maximum out of “Ch 8 Cultural Currents: 13th to 17th Centuries Notes” Read the chapter from your NCERT textbook. First read a topic from NCERT textbook and then read that topic from our notes.

For more class 8 related resources , click here

Happy reading!

Introduction
Ch 8 Cultural Currents: 13th to 17th Centuries Notes

1. WHAT IS CULTURE?
⁘ Culture = shared way of life of a group of people, passed down through generations.
● Culture Shapes How people :-
➢➢➢➢ See the world
➢➢➢➢ Interact with each other
➢➢➢➢ Conduct daily life

● Culture includes :-
➢➢➢➢ Values ➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢ Morals
➢➢➢➢ Customs & traditions ➢➢ Art
➢➢➢➢ Music ➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢ Literature
➢➢➢➢ Philosophy ➢➢➢➢➢➢ Science

2.INDIAN CULTURE FEATURES
⁘ Most ancient cultures
⁘ Covers:
➢➢ Languages ➢➢➢ Food
➢➢ Literature ➢ ➢➢ Architecture
➢➢ Art ➢➢➢➢➢➢ Knowledge Systems
➢➢ Values

3. Why Indian culture is resilient :-
⁘ Deep roots
⁘ Timeless values
⁘ Scientific temper
⁘ Rich philosophical and artistic traditions

4. Key strength of Indian culture :-
⁘ Endured political instability and invasions
⁘ Adopted best of external cultural currents
⁘ Influenced other world cultures

5. EARLY CULTURAL CONTACT WITH
⁘ Merchants and traders
⁘ Knowledge-seekers and scholars
⁘ Diplomats
⁘ People persecuted

● Regions they came from:-
➢➢ Greece ➢➢➢➢ Persia
➢➢ Central Asia ➢➢ East Asia

● What they brought:-
➢➢ Social norms ➢➢➢➢➢ Jewelry
➢➢ Cuisine/food habits ➢➢ Art
➢➢ Fashion ➢➢➢➢➢➢➢ Language
➢➢ Literature ➢ ➢➢➢➢➢ Religion
➢➢ Festivals

6. THE 13TH CENTURY TURNING POINT
India came under the influence of rulers bringing:-
➢➢ New/differing political ideas
➢➢ Administrative systems
➢➢ Art and architectural styles
➢➢ Religious beliefs

7. THREE RECURRING PATTERNS
⁘ Continuation of traditional practices
⁘ Patronage from rulers of various backgrounds
⁘ Active participation by all people

8. DIMENSIONS OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
⁘ Visual art and architecture
⁘ Music and dance
⁘ Language and literature
⁘ Science and mathematics
⁘ Philosophy

9. Persian/Arabic influence :-
⁘ Muslim ruling class patronage in several parts of India
⁘ Persian and Arabic influences naturally appeared in local culture
⁘ Created new art forms

Belief Systems

1. RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES: INVADERS VS LOCAL POPULATION

2. DESTRUCTION OF SACRED SITES
⁘ Invaders own version of Islam
⁘ Wanted to annihilate the “infidels”
➢➢ Plunder and destruction of some sacred sites and temples

3. COMPLEXITIES AND FEARS
Due to religious differences:
➢➢ No meeting ground
➢➢ Rulers may suppressed indigenous faiths

4. WHAT ACTUALLY HAPPENED
⁘ Indian Belief systems native to continue
⁘ Islam also practiced
⁘ Multiple diverse religious groups existed

The power of the bhakti tradition

1. PRE-13TH CENTURY CULTURAL BACKGROUND
● Purāṇas and the two great epics expressed through:-
➢➢ Poetry Drama Puppetry
➢➢ Painting Dance Sculpture
➢➢ Daily life (temple visits, festivals, etc.)

2. BHAKTI MĀRGA
⁘ Bhakti mārga = path of devotion
● Path to mokṣha:-
➢➢ Moksha = realization of Truth / release from the cycle of death and rebirth
⁘ Did not require rituals or priests

3.POPULARITY (13TH–17TH CENTURIES)
● The Bhakti popularity Reflected:-
➢➢ Cultural continuity
➢➢ People’s search for spiritual resilience during political and religious changes

4. HOW BHAKTI SPREAD
⁘ Verses and songs composed in local languages
● Themes expressed:-
➢➢ Love
➢➢ Compassion
➢➢ Equality
● Connected people through:-
➢➢ Songs
➢➢ Music
➢➢ Dance

Regional saints and their messages

1. REGIONAL BHAKTI SAINTS
Click below to know them

2. GURU GRANTH SĀHIB
⁘ Preserves teachings of Guru Nanak + hymns of several Hindu saints
⁘ Sacred text of the Sikhs

3. BHAJAN GATHERINGS
⁘ All sections of society participated
⁘ Bhajans = Song + musical instruments + dancing
⁘ Expressing devotion to god

Two effects of bhajans:
⁘ Oneness of god (Upaniṣhad concept) ➜ connected with Islam’s one-god idea
⁘ Brought people in cultural unity and continuity

4. PURANDARADASA
⁘ 15th–16th century
⁘ “Father of Carnatic music”
⁘ Devotee of Kṛiṣhṇa
⁘ Composed 4,75,000 kīrtanās
⁘ Wandered around Vijayanagara empire
⁘ Krishnadevaraya invited, became part of his court.

5. TAMIL NADU ➽ ĀLVĀRS AND NĀYANĀRS
⁘ Divya Prabandham ➽ composed by the Ālvārs
⁘ Tiruvāchakam ➽ composed by the Nāyanārs
⁘ Hymns for Viṣhṇu (Ālvārs) and Śhiva (Nāyanārs)

6. SUFISM ➽ DEFINITION
● Sufism = a path of Islam focused on:-
➢➢ Devotion
➢➢ Inner and personal search for god

7. QAWWĀLĪ
⁘ Devotional songs of Sufi saints
⁘ Purpose: bring people closer to the divine
⁘ Fused local classical musical styles with Sufi traditions
⁘ Lyrics about: love, faith, unity

● Famous Sufi saints:-
➢➢ Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
➢➢ Nizamuddin Auliya

8. SUFI SPIRITUAL PRACTICES
● Sufis adopted yogic and Vedantic techniques, including:-
➢➢ Inner silence
➢➢ Asceticism (renunciation of worldly desires)
➢➢ Meditation (zikr)
➢➢ Purpose: spiritual union = Vedantic paths to mokṣha

9. DARA SHIKOH ➽ UNITY OF PATHS
⁘ For unity of Vedanta and Sufi paths
⁘ Translation of some Upanishads into Persian
⁘ Saw Vedanta and Sufism as converging on universal truth
⁘ Mutual respect + understanding

10. BHAKTI + SUFI OVERLAP
⁘ Poets brought ideas from different religions
⁘ Enriched Indian literature with unity and devotion

Musical Traditions ➽ Continuation and Evolution

1. MUSIC & DANCE-DRAMA ➽ ANCIENT ROOTS
● Nātyaśhāstra:-
➢➢ Traditions in an interdisciplinary way
➢➢ Brought together:
➢➢➢➢ Dance, drama, music, science, mathematics, aesthetics, mythology
➢➢ Flexible, with many regional streams

2. TRADITIONAL STORYTELLING FORMS
⁘ With song, dance, and drama
⁘ Varied region to region

⁘ Paṭṭachitra themes: scenes from Rāmayaṇa, Mahābhārata, Puraṇās
⁘ Use: Bards told stories from the epics with song.
⁘ Everyday emotions entered these traditions
⁘ Music and dance performed in: temples, social gatherings, village melas

3. HINDUSTANI VS CARNATIC MUSIC
Indian classical music developed in two related streams:

4. DHRUPAD & RAJA MANSINGH TOMAR
⁘ Patron: Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior
⁘ Dhrupad (dhruva = fixed, pada = verse) ➽ genre of great antiquity

5. TANSEN
⁘ Real name: Rāmtanu Pandey
⁘ One of the nine ratnas of Akbar’s court
⁘ Influenced by a Sufi saint of the time
⁘ Continued composing in praise of Kṛiṣhṇa and Śhiva

● Significance:-
Example of Indian culture’s ability to accept influences and enrich itself while retaining its core.

6. INSTRUMENTS ➽ SITAR AND TABLA
⁘ Exact origins remain debated by scholars
⁘ Ancient pakhāwaj ➜ tradition behind the tabla

From Walls to Paper ➽ Miniature Paintings

1. PAINTING ➽ ANCIENT ROOTS TO PAPER
⁘ Cave art to the Ajanta murals
⁘ Murals and frescoes developed
⁘ Paper reached India in the 10th or 11th century
⁘ Now paintings from walls to paper

2. RAJPUT PAINTING TRADITION
● Themes/depictions:-
➢➢ Traditional Hindu themes
➢➢➢● Typical expressions of beauty:-
➢➢➢➢➢ Lotus flowers ➢ Banyan trees
➢➢➢➢➢ Elephants➢➢➢ Cows
➢➢➢➢➢ Peacocks ➢➢➢ Women with large eyes
➢➢➢➢➢ People with different skin colours

⁘ Abul Fazl, in the Ain-i-Akbari, referred to Hindu painters

3. MUGHAL MINIATURE PAINTING
⁘ Distinct from Rajput art
⁘ Shaped by Persian influences

● Themes of Mughal Painting:-
➢➢ Secular ➽ landscapes, court scenes, portraits (known as court paintings)
➢➢ Reached their height in Akbar’s atelier [workshop]

● Collaborative process (Akbar’s atelier):-
➢➢ One artist drew the lines
➢➢ Another filled the colors
➢➢ A third added finishing touches

⁘ Miniatures also appeared in manuscripts, including Persian translations of the Mahābhārata

4. RAJPUT–MUGHAL EXCHANGE
⁘ Exchanges in style, technique, and use of colours
● Mutual influence on painting elements:-
➢➢ Plants and gardens
➢➢ Animals
➢➢ Court and hunting scenes in Rajput paintings

● Migration & blending:-
⁘ Some Mughal court painters migrated to Bikaner ➜ blending of styles

Changing Landscapes ➽ Gardens

1. GARDENS ➽ ANCIENT TRADITION
● Words for garden in ancient texts:-
➢➢ Udyāna, vātikā, nandana
➢➢➢ Found in: Ṛigveda, Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa
⁘ Often built around temples, with a pond or tank

2. MUGHAL GARDENS ➽ CHARBAGH DESIGN
Persian charbagh design
● Charbagh features :-
➢➢ Four parts with gardens and waterways
➢➢ Represented the rivers of Paradise mentioned in the Quran
➢➢ Included: water channels, fountains, terraces

⁘ Where developed: Around forts, tombs, and mosques ➽ continue to exist today
⁘ Famous example: Mughal Gardens at Rashtrapati Bhavan

3. 17^TH-CENTURY GARDENS INSPIRED BY MUGHAL STYLE
⁘ Example: Amer Fort, Jaipur
➢➢ Geometrical patterns of Mughal gardens
➢➢➢➢➢➢● Water channels used for :-
➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢ Irrigation, AND
➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢➢ Aesthetic elements

4. LOCALISED EVOLUTION ➽ DISTINCTIVE FEATURE
● Evolution of localised forms depended on :-
➢➢ of the patron ruler
➢➢ traditions and materials
➢➢ of the craftsmen

Women in Society ➽ Contextual Variations in Their Role and Status

1. PRE-INVASION STATUS (10TH CENTURY)
● Abu Zaidu-l Hasan noted :-
⁘ Women allowed to be seen by men at court
⁘ No veil

2. IMPACT OF INVASIONS (12TH CENTURY ONWARDS)
⁘ Women and children were imprisoned and sold as slaves
⁘ Some women committed jauhar
● Consequence :-
➢➢ Attempts made to protect women
➢➢ Women’s public appearance and engagement declined

3. PURDAH AND GHŪNGHAṬ
Purdah (Persian for curtain/veil)
● Ghūnghaṭ (north India):-
➢➢ Veil ➜ to avoid public eye
➢➢ In many parts, Veil draped around the head
➢➢ Veil= symbol of nobility
➢➢ Confined to north India

4. ROYAL MUSLIM HOUSEHOLDS
⁘ Women secluded, followed purdah
⁘ Few participated in political, educational, and public activities

5. RAZIA SULTAN
⁘ First and only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate
⁘ Opposed by Nobles

● Achievements of Razia Sultan:-
➢➢ Led military campaigns
➢➢ Used clever methods against conspirators
➢➢ Established educational institutions across Delhi
➢➢ Merit-based administration
➢➢ Broke tradition: appeared unveiled at court, directly addressed the public

◈ Outcome:
These “rebellious” acts contributed to a conspiracy that ended her brief reign

6. NUR JAHAN
⁘ Wife of Jahangir
⁘ Coins minted in her name
● Role Of Noorjahan:-
➢➢ Active in governance
➢➢ Issued royal orders
➢➢ Attended court meetings
➢➢ Known for intelligence, leadership, sense of style
➢➢ Supported art, architecture, and trade

7. SOUTH INDIA
⁘ Societal norms of the past continued
● Elite women continued in administration + public life:-
➢➢ Exercised power
➢➢ Issued grants
➢➢ Influenced political decisions
⁘ Wall engravings at Hampi ➜ women participating in public life

8. EDUCATED WOMEN & CONTRIBUTIONS
● Temple donations of:-
➢➢ Entire villages
➢➢ Part of the crop
◈◈◈◈◈◈By queens and rich women
● Public works:-
➢➢ Community halls and wells

Education and Knowledge Traditions

IMPACT OF INVASIONS ON EDUCATION
⁘ Disrupted India’s education
⁘ Tradition of learning persisted
⁘ Safeguarded and nurtured by: kings, saints, poets, scholars

Institutions of learning

1. INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING

● Subjects studied (gurukulas/maṭhas/temple schools/vihāras/pallis):-
➢➢ Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar
➢➢ Astronomy
➢➢ Law
➢➢ Medicine
➢➢ Sacred texts

2. SOUTHERN CENTRES OF LEARNING
⁘ Kanchipuram and Sringeri ➽ advanced learning in philosophy and mathematics
⁘ Kerala School of Mathematics ➽ path-breaking contributions:
➢➢ Laid seeds of infinite series
➢➢ Laid seeds of calculus

3. JĀTI AND ŚHREṆI SYSTEM
⁘ System for arts, craft, and trade continued
⁘ Codes/norms guiding these institutions continued
➢➢ These decentralised systems were largely unaffected

4. PIETRO DELLA VALLE’S OBSERVATION (1623)
⁘ Italian traveller
⁘ Mentioned in letters (1623): schools in coastal regions of Karnataka
⁘ Children learning: reading, writing, arithmetic

5. DESTRUCTION OF NĀLANDĀ AND VIKRAMAŚHILĀ
⁘ Large universities destroyed during invasions in the late 12th century
⁘ Described as an immense cultural loss to humanity
● Caused:-
➢➢➢ Dispersal of learned scholars
➢➢➢ Disruption of an entire ecosystem of learning

Vocational education and knowledge sharing

1. SKILL-BASED VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
⁘ Hands-on training at a young age
⁘ Textiles used as an example: shows integration of new materials and techniques

2. INDIAN TEXTILE TRADITION
⁘ Weaving and unique textiles
⁘ Every region ➜ own speciality
⁘ Ancient weaving communities: broad umbrella called the Koshtis
● Knowledge transfer method:-
➢➢➢ Apprenticeships
➢➢➢ Either within a family, or with a master in a guild

3. BANARAS SILK SARIS
⁘ Akbar moved Weavers from Gujarat to Banaras
⁘ Brought their unique expertise
● Mughal introductions:-
➢➢➢ Zarī / zardozī
➢➢➢ Brocades
◈◈◈◈◈ These became “signature style” of Banaras silk saris
● Design influences:-
➢➢➢ Nature-inspired
➢➢➢ Geometric patterns
➢➢➢ Same traditional training system = Heritage kept alive

4. PASHMINA SHAWLS
⁘ Fanous for softness and warmth
⁘ Woven from cashmere ➽ soft wool from goats of Ladakh and Kashmir
● Mughal era:-
➢➢➢ Gained patronage of the emperors
➢➢➢ Became a symbol of nobility
● Trade:-
➢➢➢ Exported to Asia
➢➢➢ Demand among Europeans
● Design:-
➢➢➢ Embroidery ➜ Persian influence
➢➢➢ Features floral motifs

Growth of Literature and Language

1. FLOURISHING LANGUAGES
➢➢➢ Sanskrit ➢➢➢ Odia
➢➢➢ Tamil ➢➢➢ Hindavi
➢➢➢ Telugu ➢➢➢ Bengali
➢➢➢ Kannada ➢➢➢Marathi

2. BHAKTI LITERATURE’S ROLE
⁘ Enriched the culture of writing
⁘ Disseminated ideas through accessible poetry and song
● Chaitanya Mahāprabhu:-
➢➢➢ Influenced Bengali literature
➢➢➢ Includes: biographies, a new folk-song style called Dhāmāli
➢➢➢ Themes: Kṛiṣhṇa and episodes from his life
➢➢➢ These themes became part of kathak dance

● Kavindra Paramesvara:-
⁘ Court-poet
⁘ Translated the Mahābhārata into Bengali
⁘ Persian poetry was translated into Bengali
⁘ Secular themes also emerged as subjects

3. ROYAL PATRONAGE OF LITERATURE
⁘ Krishnadevaraya patronised poets in south India
⁘ Gajapati kings of Odisha fostered literary and spiritual thought
⁘ Vijayanagara, kings and queens were themselves poets

4. PERSIAN AS ADMINISTRATIVE/COURT LANGUAGE
⁘ Persian = language of the Mughals
➢➢➢ Used in administration and courtly culture
➢➢➢ Produced: histories, poetry, other texts
⁘ Helped preserve Indian knowledge

5. PERSIAN SCHOLARS AT MUGHAL COURT
⁘ Influx of Persian scholars, poets, and astronomers
⁘ Became part of the Mughal court and nobility
⁘ Interactions led to translations: Sanskrit ➜ Persian, and vice versa

6. TRANSLATION EXAMPLES

7. DARA SHIKOH ➽ DETAILED CASE
⁘ Aurangzeb’s older brother
⁘ Advocate of Hindu-Muslim harmony
⁘ Often seen in the company of: yogis, pandits, Muslim scholars
● Scholarly contribution:-
➢➢➢ Translated 52 Upaniṣhads from Sanskrit to Persian
➢➢➢ Assisted by learned scholars in Varanasi
● Impact:-
➢➢➢ Translations later reached Europe
➢➢➢ Influenced leading philosophers and thinkers in the 19th century
● Fate of DARA SHIKOH:-
➢➢➢ Persecuted by Aurangzeb
➢➢➢ Captured, accused of heresy, and executed

The development of Urdu

1. ORIGIN OF URDU
⁘ Developed in the Ganga-Yamuna plains
⁘ Base: Hindi/Hindavi spoken in this region
⁘ Integrated words from: Arabic and Persian
● Later status:-
➢➢➢ Urdu replaced Persian as an official language in the British government
➢➢➢ Listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution

2. DAKHINI ➽ SOUTHERN VARIANT
⁘ South of the Deccan, Urdu becomes Dakhini
● Took on loan-words from local languages:-
➢➢➢ Telugu
➢➢➢ Marathi
➢➢➢ Result: Urdu of Hyderabad and Lucknow are different

3. AMIR KHUSRAU ➽ “FATHER OF URDU LITERATURE”
⁘ Known as the “father of Urdu literature”
⁘ Wrote in Hindavi
⁘ Had knowledge of Sanskrit
⁘ Also wrote in Punjabi and Braj Bhasha

4. CREATIVE LANGUAGE MIXING
⁘ Khusrau creatively mixed words from different languages
● This has:-
➢➢➢ Added richness to Indian culture
➢➢➢ Become part of popular culture

Developments in Science and Technology

1. WHY SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
⁘ Indians had a culture of enquiry ➽ asking questions, experimentation, learning
⁘This led to better understanding of the world
⁘ Spirit: “let noble thoughts come to us from all directions”

2. CONTINUED ADVANCEMENT (13TH–17TH CENT.)
⁘ Supported by: regional courts and temple institutions

3. ZINC PRODUCTION
⁘ Production of pure zinc
⁘ Special distillation process used ➽ first time in the world

4. MAJOR TEXTS
⁘ Major texts of chemistry and medicine composed

5. NARAYANA PANDITA
● Wrote Gaṇitakaumudī:-
➢➢➢ Massive treatise of mathematics
➢➢➢ Included important original developments

6. MADHAVA ➽ CALCULUS PIONEER
⁘Contribution- study of calculus
⁘ Series expansion for trigonometric functions
➢➢➢ This led to an exact value of π as an infinite series

● Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics:
➢➢➢ Madhava and his followers known by this name
➢➢➢ Produced many important works until the 19th century

7. NILAKANTHA SOMAYAJI ➽ PLANETARY MODEL
⁘ Distinguished scholar of the Kerala School
⁘ Model: interior planets (Mercury and Venus) go round the Sun in an orbit that did not enclose the Earth

8. APPLIED CHEMISTRY
● Refrigeration and perfumes:-
➢➢➢ Applied chemistry used to develop refrigeration and new types of perfumes
● Indian saltpetre (Akbar’s time):-
➢➢➢ Used to make gunpowder
➢➢➢ Also used to cool water and beverages
● Itr – Jahangir:-
➢➢➢ A type of rose-based perfume, developed during this period

9. MEDICAL SYSTEMS
⁘ Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani
● Knowledge transmitted through:-
➢➢➢ Texts
➢➢➢ Oral traditions

Regional Architectural Developments

1. REGIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Each structure reflected the
values, beliefs, and aesthetics of its time

2. PATRONAGE
⁘ From kings, queens, and nobles
➢➢➢ Fostered a thriving artistic environment
➢➢➢ Resulted in iconic monuments

Temple building and reconstruction

1. VIJAYANAGARA GOLDEN AGE
⁘ Under Krishnadevaraya’s rule, the Vijayanagara Empire witnessed a golden age of:
➢➢➢ Art
➢➢➢ Architecture
➢➢➢ Cultural revival

Hampi:
⁘ Centre of urban planning and temple building
Grand temples constructed with:-
➢➢➢ Remarkable skill
➢➢➢ Devotion
➢➢➢ Excellent knowledge of engineering

Significance:
● Empire’s dedication to sacred architecture:-
➢➢➢ Reinforced religious devotion
➢➢➢ Served as testament to its prosperity and cultural vitality

3. TEMPLE RECONSTRUCTION ➽ RESILIENCE
● Resilience and spirit best exhibited by:-
➢➢➢ Reconstruction of temples that had been destroyed
➢➢➢ Sacred vigrahas (idols) reinstated
Example: Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam

Cultural Exchange in Daily Life

Through:-
➢➢➢ Food
➢➢➢ Clothing

Food

1. FOOD ➽ TWO-WAY CULINARY INFLUENCE

● Spices adopted:-

➢➢➢ Cardamom ➢➢➢ Black pepper
➢➢➢ Clove ➢➢➢ Turmeric
➢➢➢ Coriander
⁘ Part of imperial kitchens → also entered kitchens of common people

● Other adaptations:-
➢➢➢ Use of curd for marination
➢➢➢ Ghee
➢➢➢ Khichri took on new flavours

2. AKBAR AND MEAT CONSUMPTION
⁘ Akbar reportedly tried to reduce meat consumption
➢➢➢ Due to Jain and Hindu traditions

3. PERSIAN FOOD INFLUENCE
⁘ Naan
⁘ Samosas
⁘ Jalebis

Clothing

1. CLOTHING ➽ ANCIENT CONSCIOUSNESS OF ATTIRE
● Greek travellers to India recorded:
➢➢➢ Fine clothing
➢➢➢ Dyes
➢➢➢ Hairstyles
➢➢➢ Footwear (including high heels)
➢➢➢ Jewellery

Cotton, muslin, and silk production went up

2. NEW CLOTHING FORMS

◈◈◈◈◈◈◈ End Of Notes ◈◈◈◈◈◈◈

If You Have any doubts and special requirements, please email : info@studyless.in