Ch 3 Resistance and Resilience 1000–1700 CE Notes Class 9

“Ch 3 Resistance and Resilience 1000–1700 CE Notes Class 9“ is strictly based on:
Understanding Society: India And Beyond
Social Science Textbook
Grade 9| Part 2

Introduction

Between 1000 CE and 1700 CE, India faced many challenges and changes.

Forms of resistance:

● Military opposition through warfare.
● Cultural preservation of traditions and identity.

Resilience

● Meaning: Capacity to survive and adapt during challenging situations.

● When needed:

●● ⁍ Political unrest
●● ⁍ Instability
●●⁍ Challenges and opportunities

●How resilience works:

●●● ⁍ Absorb hardships → Adapt to changing circumstances
●●● ⁍ Preserve inherited socio-cultural and spiritual traditions.

●Beyond politics and warfare:

●● ⇾Restoration- places of worship
●● ⇾Modification of customs
●● ⇾Coexistence

Resistance

● Meaning: Active opposition to a force, authority, or threat.

● Purpose:

●●● ⁍ Protect political power
●●● ⁍ Safeguard territory + interests
●●● ⁍ Preserve cultural + spiritual identity

● Forms of resistance:

●●● ⁍ Warfare ●●● ⁍ Alliances
●●● ⁍ Diplomacy ● ⁍ Negotiation
●●● ⁍ Other political actions

Relationship Between Resistance and Resilience

● Resilience: Backbone of resistance.
● Political cause or leadership → Creates conditions for resistance.
● Resilience → ability to endure and continue resisting.

Safeguarding Sovereignty: Resistance, Alliances, and Confederacies

1. Causes of Invasions

Major motives:

● Territorial expansion
● Religious motives
● Economic attraction:
●●● ⁍ Fertile plains = agriculture.
●●● ⁍ Perennial river systems ensured water supply.
●●● ⁍ Surplus agrarian produce = well-being.

Fertile plains + perennial rivers → Agricultural surplus → Economic prosperity → Attraction for invaders

2. Early Resistance to Arab Invasions

● Invasions by land and sea.
● Regions of resistance:
⦿ Deccan ⦿ Malwa ⦿ Kashmir ⦿ Rajasthan

3. Resistance to Turkish Invasions

Mahmūd of Ghaznī {1001 CE}

● Ghaznī : present-day Afghanistan parts of Iran.
● Launched his first invasion against Jayapāla.

Dynasty targeted: Hindu Shāhi dynasty.

⁘ Indian ruling dynasties:

●●● ⁍ Hindu Shāhis ➜fought Turkish invaders.
●●● ⁍ Chandellas ➜ resisted Turkish expansion.
●●● ⁍ Solankīs ➜ opposed Turkish invaders.
●●● ⁍ Chauhāns ➜ fought Turkish invaders.

Battle of Kasahrada {1178 CE }

● Near Mount Abu.
● Queen Nāikī Devi (Chaulukya kingdom) defeated Muhammad Ghurī.

4. Regional Outcomes of Turkish Invasions

⁘ Territories under Turkic control
●●●● Chauhāns
●●●● Gahaḍavālas
●●●● Senas

⁘ Continued resistance by
●●● ⦿ Gujarat ⦿ Malwa ⦿ Bundelkhand
●●●●●●● Chandella resisted for 100 years.

⁘ Regions the Turks failed to conquer
●●●● Odisha
●●●● Assam
●●●● Rajputana
●●●●● ⁍ Northwestern India.

During 11^th and 12^th centuries peninsular India remained free from Turkic control

Rajput Dynasties: Confederacies and Resistance (1200–1500 CE)

1. Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate

●● 1206 CE
●● Administrative change:
●●● ⁍ Centralisation of authority.
●●● ⁍ New administrative practices to strengthen state control.

The Iqta System

● Meaning: Territories assigned to military commanders in lieu of salaries.
● Functions:
●●● ⁍ Land revenue collection
●●● ⁍ Administration of assigned territories
● Impact: Increased the burden on the peasantry.

Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate → Centralisation of authority → Revenue collection through the iqta system → Increased burden on peasants

2. Causes of Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate

Political factors

●● Expansion of Sultanate territories.
●● Centralisation of authority.
●● Resistance to Sultans of Delhi.

Socio-cultural factors

●● Demolition of sacred sites .
●●Preservation socio-cultural continuity.

Economic factors

●● Burden on the peasantry.

3. Kingdoms That Resisted the Delhi Sultanate

4. Other Centres of Opposition and Defiance

⁍ Mewar ⁍ Gwalior ⁍ Malwa ⁍ Awadh ⁍ Etawah
⁍ Ajmer ⁍ Jalore ⁍ Kalinjar ⁍ Kannauj

Rajput–Mughal Dynamics: Politics and Complexities of Rule (1500–1700 CE)

1. Decline of the Delhi Sultanate and Rise of Bābur

Delhi Sultanate:
●●Weakened + declined
●● New Political developments
●● Last ruler: Ibrāhim Lodī

Bābur
●● Full name: Zahiruddin Muhammad
●● From: Central Asia
●● Invaded India

Indian rulers
●● Began asserting their own authority.

Weakening of the Delhi Sultanate → Bābur’s invasion + Assertion of authority by Indian rulers → Political transformation

2. First Battle of Panipat (1526)

●● 1526 CE
●● Bābur defeated Lodi.
●● Significance: Delhi Sultanate ended

Decline of the Delhi Sultanate → Bābur’s invasion → Defeat of the Lodi forces → End of the Sultanate

3. Battle of Khanua (1527)

●● 1527 CE
●● Rajput leader: Rāṇā Sangrām Singh I{= Rāṇā Sāngā.}
●● Bābur Won

4. Rajput–Mughal Relations: Resistance and Cooperation

Mewar [Resistance]
●● Rajput kingdom.
●● Kept resisting to Mughal authority.

Kachhwāha Rajputs [Cooperation]

●● Of Amber, a Rajput kingdom.
●● Cooperative relationships with the Mughals.

Integration of Rajputs [Mughal Strategy]

Mughal objectives:
●● Get Rajput military strength.
●● Rajput loyalty.
●● Use Rajput administrative skills.
●●● ⁍ Methods:
●●● ●●● ⇾ Grant of mansabs.

⁘ Mansab = rank or office
● Its holders were known as mansabdars
● Mansabdari system introduced by Akbar
● ⁍ Akbar combined military organisation with civil administration

Purpose: Consolidate and stabilise the Mughal Empire.

Mewar’s Resistance against Mughals

1. Siege of Chittor [1567–1568]

●● Akbar attacked Mewar
●● Rajputs under Rāṇā Udai Singh, resisted Mughal army (5 months).
●● Mughal captured chittor fort
●● Rāṇā Udai Singh went to Aravalli Hills

2.Battle of Haldighati (1576)

●● Between Maharana Pratap {son of Rāṇā Udai Singh} And Mughal Forces
●● He used Guerrilla warfare, using the rugged terrain of the Aravalli Hills

His methods included:
●●● ⁍ Surprise attacks
●●● ⁍ Raids
●●● ⁍ Ambushes

3. Battle of Dewair (1582)

●● At Udaipur.
●● End of Mughal military outposts in Mewar.
●● Victory of Mahārāṇā Pratāp
●● He reclaimed Mewar.

4. Mahārāṇā Amar Singh

●● Mahārāṇā Amar Singh, son of Mahārāṇā Pratāp resisted Mughals
●● Jahāngīr attacked Mewar in 1605, 1608 and 1609.
●● Mughals acknowledged Mewar’s distinct political position.

5. Treaty with the Mughals and Mewar’s Autonomy

●● Mewar’s unique geopolitical position and the leading route to Surat port.
●● The Mughals made a treaty with Mewar
●●● ⁍ Under the treaty:
●● ●●● ⇾ Mewar’s leader exempted attendance at the Mughal court.
●● ●●● ⇾ This made Mewar autonomous kingdom

The Ahom Kingdom: Centuries of Endurance

Ahom kingdom belongs to Assam

1. Political Independence and Resistance

● Ahoms defended against Mughal attempts to annex the Brahmaputra valley

Why did the Ahoms resist successfully?

● ⁍ Knowledge of local terrain: forests, river systems and monsoon cycles better than invaders
● ⁍ Military strategy: Using local geography instead of direct confrontation.

2. Major Ahom–Mughal Conflicts

A. First clash [1615–1616]

● 1615 near Samdhara
● Abu Bakr ➜ Mughal side
● Mughal gain terretory, Ahoms recovered them.
●● ● ⁍ This continue for 60 years

B. Mughal invasion under Mīr Jumlā (1662)

● Mīr Jumlā captured Garhgaon (Ahom capital)
● Treaty imposed on King Jayadhvaj Singha.
● Mughals withdrew, Ahoms took independence.

C. Battle of Saraighat (1671)

● Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan defeated Mughal at the Battle of Saraighat.
● Victory checked Mughal ambitions
● Brahmaputra became territorial boundary

3. Factors Behind Ahom Endurance

Ahoms combined military, geographical, administrative and naval advantages.

● Strategic alliance–building
● Guerrilla tactics.
● Challenging geography
● Paik system: This military-administrative organisation supported the Ahom kingdom.
● Ahom navy:
●● ● ⁍ Bāchārī: Light, fast boats specially built for river warfare.

Vijayanagara Empire: Resilience against Expansion

1. Background: Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

● Malik Kāfūr
● ● ⁍ General of Alauddin Khiljī,
● ● ● ⁍ Attacked cities and temples at:
●●●●●● ⇾ ⇾ Warangal
●●●●●● ⇾ ⇾ Belur
●●●●●● ⇾ ⇾ Madurai
Muhammad bin Tughlaq extended the Sultanate’s influence south.

● These developments resulted in :
●● ● ⁍ The decline of the Pandya Kingdom.
●● ● ⁍ The emergence of the Madurai Sultanate.

2. Establishment and Expansion of Vijayanagara (1336)

● Established by Harihara and Bukkā
● At Hampi, Karnataka.
● Vijayanagara means “City of Victory.”
● To stop Delhi Sultanate into peninsular India.
⁘ Natural defences:
● ● ⁍ River.
● ● ⁍ Rugged, rocky terrain.
● ● ⁍ These gave natural protection and a secure base for military operations.

⁘ Territorial and cultural expansion:
● ● ⁍ Vijayanagara annexed territories of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
● ● ⁍ Its capital became centre of trade, culture and political power.
● ● ⁍ Literature flourished in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit.

3. Conflict with the Madurai Sultanate

⁘ During Bukkā’s reign, Vijayanagara acquired :
● ● ⁍ Madurai Sultanate
● ● ⁍ Arcot

Battle of Kannanur (1342)

● Between Hoysāla king Vīra Ballāla III and Madurai Sultanate.
● Sultan executed the Hoysāla ruler.

⁘ Kumāra Kampana’s [son of Bukkā] campaign

● Against Madurai Sultanate
● Killed Sultan= Madurai Sultanate ended .
● Reinstated the divine images in:
● ● ⁍ Rajasimheshwara Temple, Kanchipuram
● ● ⁍ Sri xTemple, Srirangam

4. Battle of Talikota and Decline of Vijayanagara (1565)

Vijayanagara army was defeated at the Battle of Talikota by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates.

⁘ Following the defeat:
● ⁘ Vijayanagara was:
● ● ⁍ Sacked.
● ● ⁍ Abandoned.
● ● ⁍ Fragmented.
●●●●●● ⇾ ⇾ Several territories came under Nāyaka kingdoms.

Marathas: The Quest for Swarājya

1. Rise of the Marathas and Establishment of Swarājya

● Chhatrapati Śhivājī established independent Maratha state in 1674
● Marathas strengths included:
● ● ⁍ Knowledge of Deccan geography
● ● ⁍ Bravery and martial abilities
● ● ⁍ Administrative capabilities

2. Meaning and Importance of Swarājya = [Self Rule]

● For Marathas, Swarājya = territorial control + sovereignty + self-governing + independent
● Chhatrapati Śhivājī , earliest proponents of Swarājya.

3. Maratha Resistance against the Mughals

● Long War with Marathas affected Mughals:
● ● ⁍ Economic Weakness
● ● ⁍ Political Weakness
● Aurangzeb spent two decades in the Deccan fighting Marathas
● Marathas used strategic alliances to expand their control
● ● ⁍ Helped establish a wide network of tributary relationships

4. Forts: Strategic Centres of Resistance

Marathas used forts such as Raigad and Sinhagad to resist Mughal expansion.

⁘ Importance of Maratha forts
● ● ⁍ Geographical advantage: Hills and deep valleys provided defense.
● ● ⁍ Guerrilla warfare: Forts served as strategic centres for swift attacks.
● ● ⁍ Safe retreats: Places of refuge after military operations.

⁘ Different strategic roles of Forts:
● ● ⁍ Advanced outposts: for forward military operations.
● ● ⁍ Fallback capitals: alternative centres of authority, helping prevent total defeat.
● ● ⁍ Defensive network: To withstand sieges.
● ● ⁍ Administrative and judicial functions
● ● ⁍ Self-sufficiency: Strong defences, water sources and armouries

The Sikhs: A Story of Spiritual and Political Resilience

1. Origin and Growth of Sikhism

● Guru Nānak Founded a spiritual movement that became Sikhism.
⁘ Sikhism emphasised:
● ● ⁍ Devotion to one God
● ● ⁍ Social equality
● ● ⁍ Rejection of rituals

⁘ Sikh community expanded in:
● ● ● Punjab
● ● ● Sindh
● ● ● Gangetic plains

2. Mughal Intervention and the Martyrdom of Sikh Gurus

A. Guru Arjan Dev

● Fifth Sikh Guru, executed by Jahāngīr.
● Pretext: Guru’s alleged support for Jahāngīr’s son Khusrau Mirza.
● This changed Sikh community’s organizational + political orientation.

B. Guru Hargobind

● Sixth Sikh Guru, detained by Jahāngīr in Gwalior Fort
● Sikhs visited Gwalior, paid their respects

C. Guru Tegh Bahādur

● Ninth Sikh Guru
● 1675 Aurangzeb executied of him

Significance of the Gurus’ sacrifices

● Mughal persecution = political motivations + religious and discriminatory practices.
● Sikhs opposed persecution with firm resistance and resilience.

3. Collective Organisation and Armed Resistance

⁘ Due to Political pressure and persecution 
● ●● Sikhs saw two needs:
● ● ● ● ⁍ Collective organization
● ● ● ● ⁍ Armed resistance
● Many armed conflicts between Sikhs and Mughals
● Guru Gobind Singh’s sons wee executed

4. Akāl Takht and the Concept of Mīrī-Pīrī

A. Akāl Takht

● Guru Hargobind established the Akāl Takht, a seat of temporal authority.
● Its functions:
● ● ⁍ Justice.
● ● ⁍ Governance.
● To counter Mughal political dominance.

B. Mīrī-Pīrī

Mīrī-pīrī represented the Guru’s authority over both worldly and spiritual affairs.

5. Formation of the Khalsa (1699)

● By Guru Gobind Singh
● Khalsa adopted a distinct martial code
● Khalsa joined Sikh spiritual and political identity.

6. Misals and the Expansion of Armed Sikh Organisation

●Misals = Sikhs armed groups
● Formed due to :
● ● ⁍ Mughal hostility
● ● ⁍ Execution Guru Gobind Singh’s sons
●Misals defended  Sikh communities + territories by military and administrative means.
●Misals became anti-Mughal confederacies.
●Peasants became soldiers

Jat Resistance

1. Causes of Jat Resistance

● Jats were farmers in the Ganga–Yamuna Doab
● Mughals taxed them heavily
● Economic exploitation = hardship
● Aurangzeb’s religious policies caused anger
● ● ⁍ = Anger against Mughal rule

2. First Rebellion under Gokul Jat (1669)

● Gokul Jat led a rebellion against Mughals
● Mughal took months to stop it

3. Second Rebellion (1686–1691)

● Jats used Aurangzeb’s long Deccan campaigns.
● Leader: Zamindars of Sinsani and Sogar
● By 1691, Mughals had the advantage.
● Jat resistance continued.

Bhakti Tradition: Affirmation of the Spirit of Resilience

1. Meaning and Spread of the Bhakti Tradition

Bhakti = personal devotion + equality + inclusion + local languages.

● Bhakti = personal devotion to the divine
● India’s religious life changed from 11th to the 17th century.
● Bhakti used local-language hymns.
● From the 7th century, Bhakti spread in peninsular India and influenced society, religion, and politics.

Core principles of Bhakti

● Inclusivity: Bhakti opened devotion to all groups.
● Equality: Bhakti taught spiritual equality + Socio-religious equality
● Simplicity: Bhakti gave an easy devotion path
● Daily life: Bhakti used familiar languages and community practices

Example
Eknāth:
Composed and taught open devotion in Marathi, without institutions

2. Spread of Bhakti in Northern India and Its Two Streams

Rāmānanda, helped bridge the Bhakti traditions of southern and northern India.

Bhakti had two main streams:

Saints came from many backgrounds, so Bhakti was inclusive.

3. Bhakti as a Means of Cultural Resilience

How Bhakti strengthened resilience

● Non-material worship: Nām kīrtan = recitation of the divine name
● Local songs: Devotional songs transmit belief
● Community participation: Satsang brought spiritual practice to wider sections of society.
● Reduced dependence on physical structures: Devotion without temples

Example :
● Sankardev
● ⁍ Composed the Kīrtana Ghosha.
● ⁍ Vaishnava traditions

4. Community Singing: Solidarity and Resistance

● Chaitanya Mahāprabhu and Guru Nānak used community singing to bridge social divides
● Sankīrtan = community singing.
● ⁍ Large gatherings.
● ⁍ Created a shared sense of community.
● ⁍ Generated collective emotion
● ⁍ Sometimes Protest
● ● ● Example:
● ● ● ● Chaitanya Mahāprabhu in Bengal
●● ● ● ⁍Public sankīrtan
●● ● ● ⁍Protested restrictions on devotional practices

Religious orders in Rajasthan

Example:
● Dādu Panth and Niranjani Sampradāya
● Some had standing armies of warrior ascetics.
● Activities:
● ⁍ Protecting trade routes
● ⁍ Facilitating the movement of saints
● ⁍ Providing educational services
● ⁍ Providing medical services

5. Women Saints and the Tradition of Inclusion

● Devotional hymns in their own languages
● Use of local languages strengthened shared identities and fostered solidarity

Important women saints

Akkā Mahādevi
▪ Karnataka
▪ Shaivite saint
▪ Lived as an ascetic

Lāl Ded
▪ Kashmir
▪ Shaivite saint
▪ Lived as an ascetic

Bahinābāi
▪ Maharashtra.
▪ Devoted to Vithoba.
▪ Fulfilled familial duties while on the path of devotion

6. Bhakti Saints Across Different Regions

7. Devotees from Diverse Religious and Social Backgrounds

Syed Ibrāhim Khān (Raskhān)
● Uttar Pradesh
● Wrote in Braj
● ⁍ Prem Vāṭikā
● ⁍ Sujān Raskhān

Abdul Rahīm Khān-i-Khāna (Rahīm)
● Mughal military commander
● Wrote poetry in Braj for god Kṛiṣhṇa

Bibi Lachimar
● origin.
● Devotee of Viṣhṇu.

Temples: The Resilience of Sacred Sites

1. Temples as Socio-Economic and Political Institutions

Major functions of temples

● Economic hubs: Managed land grants and local trade
● Employment centres:  Work to artisans + specialised workers
● Financial institutions: Credit to farmers + traders + village assemblies
● Political institutions:  Helped rulers gain legitimacy. through temple patronage
● Educational and cultural centres:  Preserved arts like Bharatanatyam
● Social integration: United communities
● Quasi-judicial authorities: Collected taxes and penalties

2. Temples as Sources of Political Legitimacy

● Temples and deities = protectors of state + people
● Deity as the real ruler
● Human ruler = deity’s deputy
● For rulers: Temple patronage = political legitimacy

Examples of rulers governing on behalf of deities

3. Temples as Economic Institutions

A. Employment and wealth

● Temples provided employment to:
● ● ▪ Architects ▪ Artisans ▪ Sculptors ▪ Priests ▪ Musicians ▪ Administrative staff
● Temples were landholders.
● Temples received donations, endowments and land grants

Example: Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur
Received:
▪ Gold ▪ Ornaments ▪ Vessels

B. Agricultural development and credit

● Temple wealth supported irrigation + agrarian development
● Temples extended credit to:
● ● ⁍ Cultivators
● ● ⁍ Village assemblies
● ● ⁍ Merchant groups

C. Growth of temple towns

● Due to concentration of :
●● ⁍Religious, economic and administrative activities
●● ● ●Examples:
● ● ●● ⁍ Thanjavur
● ● ●● ⁍ Kanchipuram
●● ● ● ⁍ Puri

4. Temple Construction, Destruction and Restoration

A. Growth of temple construction

● Dynasties built temples 
● Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions destroyed temples
● Temples and maṭhs faced plunder or destruction
● Mosques replaced them on the same sites.

B. Efforts to maintain and restore temples

● Local rulers allied with central authorities build major structures
● Restoration kept religious traditions and sacred spaces.

Important examples

1. Kannanur temple
● At Kannanur
● ● ⁍ Hoysāla regional capital
● Built by Vīra Someśhvara
● Converted into a mosque under Sultanate rule
● Restored as a temple by Kumāra Kampana

2. Kashi Vishwanath Temple
Reconstructed by:
● ● ⁍ Toḍar Mal, Akbar’s revenue officer
● ● ⁍ Rājā Mān Singh, a chief of the Rajput Kachhwāha family
● Demolished by Aurangzeb
● Present temple was built by Ahilyābāī Holkar in 1780

3. Govind Devji Temple
● Rājā Mān Singh at Vrindavan.

4. Keshav Dev Temple
● Bundela king Vīr Singh at Mathura.

5. Havelī Temples: Architectural Adaptation from the 16th Century

Main architectural features

Why did temple architecture change?

● To avoid destruction.
● Hidden, house-like sacred spaces stayed open in hard times.

Examples:
● Jagat Shiromani Temple.

Risk of destruction → less visible locations + house-like designs + fewer prominent architectural features → continued functioning of sacred spaces.

Indian Economy: Agriculture, Trading Networks, and Merchant Communities

1. Expansion of Agriculture and Craft Production

Due to :
● ● ⁍ Expansion of agrarian economy
● ● ⁍ Growth of artisanal and craft production centres
● Empires expanded → area under cultivation expanded
● Land revenue → main source of state income

2. Land Revenue and Agricultural Taxation

● Land revenue collection became strict and exploitative
● Land tax = 50%
● ● ⁍ During: Alauddin Khiljī and Mohammad bin Tughlaq

3. Coastal Areas and Maritime Trade

● For coastal regions and port cities, Delhi Sultans and Mughals care only about:
● ● ⁍ Political matters
● ● ⁍ Military matters
● ● ⁍ Collecting customs duties
● Locals controlled coastal trade.

4. Irrigation Technologies and Agricultural Development

● Irrigation technologies:
● ● ⁍ Rope pulleys
● ● ⁍ Spinning wheel
● ● ⁍ Persian wheel

Irrigation in the Vijayanagara Empire

● Irrigation systems:
● ● ⁍ Canal networks
● ● ⁍ Small rain-fed patches of land
● Investment in small-scale irrigation

5. Inland Trade Networks and Merchant Communities

● India was connected to trade routes in Central Asia
● ● ⁍ Trade of :
●● ●●● ⇾ Goods.
●● ●●● ⇾ Artisanal knowledge.
●● ●● ●●● ◾ Trade by → caravans = large groups of traders
● Urban centres expanded Inland trade

Role of merchant communities

● Banjārās = local trading communities.
● ⁍ Connected rural regions with urban centres.
●●● ⇾ Helped by revenue-collecting officials

6. Maritime Trade and the Indian Ocean Network

● Western India connected to:
● ⁍ The Persian Gulf.
● ⁍ The Arabian Sea.
●●● ⇾ Vital axes of this network
●● ●● ●●● ◾ Eastern Mediterranean
●● ●● ●●● ◾ China

The World of the Indian Ocean: Continuity and Change

1. European Arrival and Trade

● 16th century, Europeans entered Indian Ocean trade network
● Portuguese wanted control over maritime trade
● Mughals wanted centralised control over land revenue
● Dutch, English, Danes and French joined European trade.

2. Merchants and Production

● Merchants controlled:
● ⁍ Wealth, production, supply chains and trade finance
● Merchants Funded:
● ⁍ States and political allies
● Peasants:
● ⁍ Produced raw materials.
● Weavers, dyers and bleachers prepared cotton textiles
● Gujarati merchants flourished in Malabar, Coromandel and Bengal

3. Roles of Indian Merchants

● Traders and shippers
● Bankers and money-changers
● Brokers and dubhaśhīs (interpreters and translators)
● Diplomats and bureaucrats
● Vellalār = Agriculturists and pastoralists became trader

4. Economic Resilience [1000–1700 CE]

Economic Strength due to:

● Agricultural innovations and irrigation
● Expanding markets and merchant networks
● Financial instruments eg, hunḍī
● India’s central role in Indian Ocean and transcontinental trade