Working of Institutions Class 9 Short Notes is created entirely out of your NCERT textbook, and it is highly relevant for your next exam.
To get the maximum benefit from the short notes, you should first read the NCERT textbook and then learn the short notes here.
Your exam questions are set entirely from the NCERTs. In these short notes, we have populated only the most important points and keywords.
The Decision Makers
1. President of India
- Role: Head of State
- Authority: Highest formal authority in the country
2. Prime Minister of India
- Role: Head of the Government
- Powers:
- Exercises all real governmental powers
- Takes most decisions in Cabinet meetings
3. Parliament of India
Includes the President, the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha
- Composition:
- President
- Two Houses:
- Lok Sabha (House of the People)
- Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
- Prime Minister’s Requirement:
- Must enjoy the support of a majority of Lok Sabha members
| Keyword | Role | Key Detail |
|---|---|---|
| President | Head of the State | Highest formal authority |
| Prime Minister | Head of the Government | Holds real executive power; leads Cabinet |
| Parliament | Legislative body | Includes the President, the Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha |
Need for Political Institutions
Purpose
- Ensure security, education, and health
- Collect taxes; spend on administration, defence, development
- Formulate and implement welfare schemes
- Decide, implement, and resolve disputes
- Clarify who is responsible for what
- Ensure continuity despite a change in leaders
Definition
- Institutions: arrangements in modern democracies
- Constitution sets their powers and functions
Key Institutions
- PM & Cabinet: take policy decisions
- Civil Servants: implement decisions
- Supreme Court: settles disputes
Challenges of Political
institutions
- Cause delays, complications
- Involve rules, meetings, and routines
- Can feel frustrating
Why Institution
are Essential
- Prevent bad decisions
- Enable wider consultation
- Uphold the democratic spirit
PARLIAMENT
What is Parliament?
- National assembly of elected representatives
- Exercises supreme political authority on behalf of the people
- At the state level: called the Legislature or Legislative Assembly
- Exists in every democracy, though names may differ
Influence of
Parliament
- Did not directly take the decision
- Discussions shaped the government’s decision
Why the Government
Needed Parliament’s Support
- If Parliament opposed the decision,
The government could not proceed - Cabinet is accountable to Parliament
- Parliament can reject, question,
or withdraw support from the government
Why do we need a Parliament?
Functions of Parliament
1. Law-making:
- Final authority for making, changing, or abolishing laws
- Called legislatures because of this role
2. Control over government:
- Exercises direct and full control (e.g., in India)
- The government can act only with Parliament’s support
3. Control over finances:
- Public money can be spent only with Parliament’s sanction
4. Forum for debate:
- The highest forum for discussion on public issues and national policy
- Can seek information on any matter
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Parliament | National assembly of elected representatives; supreme political authority |
| Legislature | Body with power to make, amend, or repeal laws |
| Legislative Assembly | State-level elected body (in India) that functions like Parliament |
| Law-making | Process of creating, changing, or abolishing laws |
| Political authority | Power to govern and make binding decisions on behalf of the people |
| Public money | Funds collected from citizens (e.g., taxes) used for government spending |
| Debate | Formal discussion on public issues or policies in Parliament |
| Sanction | Official approval (e.g., Parliament’s approval to spend money) |
Two Houses of Parliament
- Lok Sabha (House of the People): directly elected; exercises real power
- Rajya Sabha (Council of States): indirectly elected; represents states/regions
- President: part of Parliament but not a member of either House; gives assent to laws
Key Differences
| Feature | Lok Sabha | Rajya Sabha |
|---|---|---|
| Total members | 545 | 245 |
| Elected by | People (direct election) | Elected members of State Assemblies (indirect election) |
| Term length | 5 years | 6 years (1/3 members retire every 2 years) |
| Dissolution | Can be dissolved | Permanent (not subject to dissolution) |
Why the Lok Sabha is More Powerful
1. Ordinary laws
- If Houses disagree, the decision is made in a joint session → Lok Sabha view prevails (more members)
2. Money matters
- Lok Sabha passes budget/money bills → Rajya Sabha cannot reject
- Rajya Sabha can only delay by 14 days or suggest changes (Lok Sabha may ignore)
3. Control over government
- Prime Minister must have the Lok Sabha majority support
- No-confidence motion in Lok Sabha → Council of Ministers must resign
- Rajya Sabha has no such power
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Lok Sabha | A bill related to taxation or government spending; introduced only in the Lok Sabha |
| Rajya Sabha | Upper House; indirectly elected; represents states; limited powers |
| Joint session | Meeting of both Houses to resolve disagreements on ordinary laws |
| Money bill | Bill related to taxation or government spending; introduced only in Lok Sabha |
| No-confidence motion | Motion passed by Lok Sabha to remove the Council of Ministers |
| Dissolution | Ending of Lok Sabha before next election; Rajya Sabha is permanent |
| Assent | President’s formal approval required for a bill to become law |
POLITICAL EXECUTIVE
What is the Executive?
- Functionaries who make day-to-day decisions
- Do not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people
- Responsible for the execution of government policies
- The term “the government” usually refers to the executive
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Executive | Officials who implement government policies; includes ministers and civil servants |
| Functionaries | Individuals holding official roles in government administration |
| Execution | Carrying out or implementing decisions and policies |
| Office Memorandum | Official document communicating a policy decision |
| Lok Sabha support | Necessary for Prime Minister to remain in power and make decisions |
Political and Permanent Executive
Two Types of Executive
Political Executive
- Elected by the people for a specific period
- Takes big policy decisions
- Includes ministers, the Prime Minister, Cabinet
Permanent Executive
(Civil Services)
- Appointed on a long-term basis
- Called civil servants
- Remain in office even when the ruling party changes
- Assist the political executive in day-to-day administration
Why the Political Executive is More Powerful
- Minister is an elected representative → exercises the will of the people
- Answerable to the people for all decisions
- Sets the overall framework and objectives of policy
- May lack technical expertise, but takes the final decision after expert advice
- Experts may give multiple options → the minister chooses based on public interest
“Experts know the route; ministers decide the destination.”
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Political Executive | Elected officials (e.g., ministers) who make major policy decisions |
| Permanent Executive | Appointed civil servants who implement policies; remain across governments |
| Civil Servants | Officials in civil services; provide continuity and expertise |
| Will of the people | Authority derived from public mandate through elections |
| Policy Framework | Broad goals and guidelines within which decisions are made |
| Technical Advice | Expert input provided by civil servants on specialized matters |
Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
Appointment of the Prime Minister
- No direct election to the post
- President appoints the leader of the majority party/alliance in the Lok Sabha
- If no clear majority, the President appoints the person most likely to secure majority support
- No fixed tenure – remains in power as long as it enjoys a Lok Sabha majority
Appointment of Other Ministers
- Appointed by the President on the PM’s advice
- Usually from the majority party/coalition
- Must be Members of Parliament (or get elected within 6 months if not)
Council of Ministers
- Official body of all ministers (60–80 members)
- Three ranks:
| Rank | Role |
|---|---|
| Cabinet Ministers | Top leaders, head major ministries, form the inner ring; take key decisions |
| Ministers of State (Independent Charge) | Head smaller ministries; attend Cabinet only when invited |
| Ministers of State | Assist Cabinet Ministers |
How the Cabinet Works
- Cabinet meetings = main decision-making forum
- Known as Cabinet form of government
- Collective responsibility: all ministers support every decision, even if not their ministry
- No public criticism of government decisions allowed
Support Structure
- Each ministry has Secretaries (civil servants)
Who provides background info - Cabinet Secretariat: senior civil servants
- who coordinate between ministries
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Prime Minister | Head of government; appointed by President based on Lok Sabha majority |
| Council of Ministers | All ministers together; includes Cabinet, MoS (Ind.), and MoS |
| Cabinet | Inner group of ~25 top ministers; takes major policy decisions |
| Collective Responsibility | All ministers must publicly support every Cabinet decision |
| Minister of State | Junior minister who assists a Cabinet Minister |
| Cabinet Secretariat | Civil service body that coordinates work across ministries |
| Lok Sabha Majority | Required for PM and Council of Ministers to stay in power |
Powers of the Prime Minister
Constitutional Position
- Constitution does not detail the PM’s powers
- As head of government, the PM holds wide-ranging powers
Key Powers of the Prime Minister
- Chairs Cabinet meetings
- Coordinates the work of different departments
- Final authority in case of inter-departmental disagreements
- Exercises general supervision over all ministries
- All ministers work under his leadership
- Distributes and redistributes portfolios among ministers
- Can dismiss ministers
- When the PM resigns, the entire Council of Ministers resigns
PM as the Centre of Power
- Most powerful within the Cabinet
- In parliamentary democracies, trend toward Prime Ministerial government
- PM controls the Cabinet and Parliament through the political party
- Media reinforces focus on top leaders, boosting PM’s visibility
Historical Examples
- Jawaharlal Nehru: exercised enormous authority due to public influence
- Indira Gandhi: very powerful leader compared to Cabinet colleagues
- The extent of power also depends on individual personality
Constraints in the Coalition Era
- Coalition politics limits PM’s power
- Must accommodate factions within the party and alliance partners
- Must heed the views of coalition partners whose support is essential for government survival
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Prime Ministerial Government | System where PM dominates Cabinet and policy due to concentrated power |
| Collective Leadership | Shared decision-making; reduced under strong PMs |
| Coalition Government | Government formed by multiple parties; limits PM’s unilateral decisions |
| Portfolio Allocation | Distribution of ministries among ministers by the PM |
| Cabinet Coordination | PM ensures unity and coherence across ministries |
| Political Party Control | PM uses party machinery to influence Parliament and Cabinet |
The President
Role and Position
- Head of the State, not head of government
- Exercises nominal (ceremonial) powers
- Ensures all political institutions function in harmony
Election
- Not directly elected by the people
- Elected by elected MPs and MLAs
- Must secure the majority of votes → represents the entire nation
- No direct popular mandate → remains nominal executive
Powers (Formal vs Real)
- All actions done in the President’s name:
- Laws and policy decisions
- Major appointments (Chief Justice, Judges, Governors, Election Commissioners, Ambassadors)
- International treaties
- Supreme Commander of defence forces
- But: All powers exercised only on the advice of the Council of Ministers
- Can ask for reconsideration once
- Must accept if the same advice is given again
Assent to Bills
- A bill becomes law only after the President’s assent
- Can return the bill for reconsideration
- Must sign if Parliament passes it again
Key Independent Power
- Appoints Prime Minister:
- If a clear majority → appoints the leader of the majority party/coalition
- If no majority → uses discretion to appoint a leader likely to get support
- Can ask PM to prove majority in Lok Sabha within the specified time
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Head of the State | Ceremonial head; in India, the President |
| Nominal Executive | Holds formal authority but acts on advice of real executive (Council of Ministers) |
| Council of Ministers | Real executive; advises President on all matters |
| Presidential Assent | Final approval needed for a bill to become law |
| Discretionary Power | Limited power to act independently; used mainly in PM appointment when no clear majority |
| Elected Representatives | MPs and MLAs who elect the President |
THE JUDICIARY
Why Judiciary
is Essential
- Ensures disputes are resolved fairly and peacefully
- Without it:
- No check on government actions
- No trusted authority to settle conflicts
- Judgements may be ignored, leading to chaos
Structure of
Indian Judiciary
- Integrated system:
- Supreme Court (national level)
- High Courts (state level)
- District Courts and local courts
- Supreme Court controls judicial administration
- Its decisions are binding on all lower courts
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
Can take up disputes between:
- Citizens
- Citizens and government
- Two or more state governments
- Union and state governments
- The highest court of appeal in civil and criminal cases
Independence of the Judiciary
- Not controlled by the legislature or the executive
- Judges do not act on government directions
- Appointment:
- By the President on the advice of the PM and in consultation with the Chief Justice
- In practice, senior judges select new judges → minimal political interference
- Removal:
- Only through impeachment
- Requires a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament
- Never happened in India
Powers of the
Judiciary
- Judicial Review:
- Can interpret the Constitution
- Can declare laws or executive actions
invalid if unconstitutional
- Basic Structure Doctrine:
- Parliament cannot alter
core principles of the Constitution
- Parliament cannot alter
Guardian
of Rights
- Protects Fundamental Rights
- Citizens can approach courts for a remedy if their rights are violated
- Public Interest Litigation (PIL):
- Any person can file a case if public interest is harmed
- Courts check misuse of power and malpractices by officials
- High public trust due to fairness and independence
Process to remove judges requires two-thirds majority in both Houses
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Judiciary | System of courts that interprets and applies laws |
| Integrated Judiciary | Single unified system; Supreme Court controls all lower courts |
| Judicial Review | Power to examine and invalidate unconstitutional laws or actions |
| Basic Structure Doctrine | Process to remove judges requires a two-thirds majority in both Houses |
| Public Interest Litigation (PIL) | Legal action initiated for public good, even by non-affected persons |
| Impeachment | Process to remove judges; requires two-thirds majority in both Houses |
| Independent Judiciary | Free from control of executive and legislature; ensures fair justice |
FAQs: Working Of Institutions Class 9 Short Notes
1. Who holds real executive power in India—the President or the Prime Minister?
The Prime Minister holds real executive power. The President is the nominal head and acts only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
2. Why is the Lok Sabha considered more powerful than the Rajya Sabha?
The Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers, has final say in money bills, and its larger size gives it an edge in joint sessions on ordinary laws.
3. What is the difference between political and permanent executives?
Political executives (e.g., ministers) are elected and make policy decisions. Permanent executives (civil servants) are appointed, provide continuity, and assist in implementation.
4. How is the independence of the judiciary ensured in India?
Judges are appointed with minimal political interference, and can be removed only by a two-thirds majority in Parliament—a process never used. They are not answerable to the executive.
5. What is judicial review, and why is it important?
Judicial review is the power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional. It protects Fundamental Rights and ensures no branch oversteps constitutional limits.
