Explanation: Assertion (A) is false because not everything in the environment qualifies as a resource without meeting the criteria of technological accessibility, economic feasibility, and cultural acceptability. Reason (R) correctly defines these essential conditions.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is explicitly refuted as resources aren’t free gifts of nature. Reason (R) correctly explains that human intervention transforms natural materials into resources, making R true and the explanation for A’s falsehood.

Explanation: Both assertion and reason are true. The transformation process involves nature-technology-institution interaction, and human economic development occurs through technological interaction with nature and institutional frameworks, making R the correct explanation of A.

Explanation: Both statements are false. Human beings are essential resource components as they transform materials into usable resources, and resources aren’t solely natural but result from human interaction with environmental elements.

Explanation: Both statements are true. The core definition of resources centers on their ability to satisfy human needs. Reason R correctly explains that utility is the fundamental requirement for resource classification, making it the proper explanation for A.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true as resources are classified by origin, exhaustibility, ownership, and development status. Reason (R) is true but not directly provided as the explanation for this specific classification in the source.

Explanation: Both assertion and reason are true. Resources are classified by origin as biotic/living and abiotic/non-living, and R provides the definitions that explain this classification.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The classification is based on exhaustibility, and R correctly defines renewable/non-renewable resources which explains the categorization.

Explanation: Both statements are true. Ownership classification exists, and R describes a logical utility of ownership systems, but it’s not explicitly stated as the reason for this classification.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true regarding the classification. Reason (R) provides a correct definition of ‘developed stock’ but doesn’t explain why the classification exists.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements, as explicitly stated in the source: “Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life” and “It was believed that resources are free gifts of nature. As a result, human beings used them indiscriminately”. However, the reason (R) describes a consequence of a belief about resources, not why resources are vital for survival. There is no direct causal link implied between R and A’s truth.

Explanation: The assertion (A) is true; the source lists “Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals” as a major problem. The reason (R) is false because the indiscriminate use of resources, specifically the “Accumulation of resources in few hands,” is explicitly stated to have “divided the society into two segments i.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor,” not prevented societal division or led to equitable distribution. In fact, equitable distribution is presented as a solution needed, not a result.

Explanation: The assertion (A) is true as stated in the source: “Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises”. The reason (R) is also true and provides specific examples directly listed in the source immediately after the statement in A: “such as, global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation”. Therefore, R is a direct and accurate explanation for A, providing evidence and detail.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. The source states, “An equitable distribution of resources has become essential for a sustained quality of life and global peace.” Immediately following this, it explains why this is essential: “If the present trend of resource depletion by a few individuals and countries continues, the future of our planet is in danger”. Thus, the reason provides the critical consequence that necessitates the action mentioned in the assertion.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements according to the source. The source states, “Therefore, resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life” and subsequently, “Sustainable existence is a component of sustainable development.” While both are true, the reason (R) defines a relationship between “sustainable existence” and “sustainable development,” but it does not explain why resource planning is essential for sustainable existence. The necessity of resource planning for sustainable existence is stated as a conclusion, not as a direct consequence of sustainable existence being a component of sustainable development.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and directly constitute the definition of sustainable economic development provided in the source. The definition is: “‘development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.'” Reason (R) provides the second crucial part of this definition, which is an integral component and explanation of what sustainable development entails beyond just environmental non-damage.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. The assertion (A) accurately states the purpose of the summit: “The Summit was convened for addressing urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic development at the global level.” The reason (R) accurately states a fact about the summit: “In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit.” However, the reason (R) describes who and when/where the summit took place, not why it was convened (its purpose).

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true. The source states that “The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century”. The reason (R) then explains the purpose and goals of Agenda 21, stating, “It aims at achieving global sustainable development. It is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty, disease through global co-operation on common interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities”. Therefore, R directly elaborates on what Agenda 21 is, providing the context and explanation for its adoption mentioned in A.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. The source states, “It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil” (A). It also states, “One major objective of the Agenda 21 is that every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21” (R). While both are true facts about Agenda 21, the reason (R) describes an objective of Agenda 21, not why or how it was signed by world leaders.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and are directly linked in the source. The source states Gandhiji’s concern: “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed”. It immediately follows with his reasoning: “He placed the greedy and selfish individuals and exploitative nature of modern technology as the root cause for resource depletion at the global level”. Thus, R directly explains the underlying philosophy behind Gandhiji’s statement and concern, making it a correct explanation of A.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. The source states, “Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources.” It then immediately provides the context for its importance in India: “It has importance in a country like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources”. The diversity in resources (R) is presented as the very reason why planning is important in India, thereby serving as a direct explanation for A in the context of India.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements from the source. A is supported by: “For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits”. R is supported by: “There are many regions in our country that are rich in resources but these are included in economically backward regions”, which is followed by a direct question asking the reader to identify such regions, strongly implying these states mentioned are examples. However, R does not explain why A is true; it describes another characteristic of these resource-rich regions (their economic backwardness). They are two distinct facts presented about the same regions.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. A is supported by “Goa has abundance of water resources”. R is supported by “but lacks in infrastructural development”. While both statements are true about Goa, the reason (R) does not explain why it has abundant water resources (A). It simply states another fact about the region, contrasting with its resource abundance.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. A is supported by “The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy.” R is supported by “but lacks in water resources.” These are two distinct characteristics of Rajasthan mentioned in the context of resource diversity and regional imbalances. The lack of water (R) does not explain the abundance of solar and wind energy (A).

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements as per the source. The source states, “The cold desert of Bihar is relatively isolated from the rest of the country” (A). It also states, “It has very rich cultural heritage but it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital minerals” (R). While both describe Bihar, its deficiencies (R) do not explain its isolation (A). These are separate descriptive facts about the region.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and causally linked in the source. After detailing regional disparities in resource availability (e.g., Jharkhand rich in coal, Rajasthan lacking water), the source concludes, “This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels”. The diversity and imbalances in resource availability (R) are precisely why balanced resource planning at various levels (A) is necessary.

Explanation: The assertion (A) is true: “The availability of resources is a necessary condition for the development of any region”. The reason (R) is false. The source explicitly states the opposite: “mere availability of resources in the absence of corresponding changes in technology and institutions may hinder development”. It further elaborates that development requires resources accompanied by appropriate technological development and institutional changes.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and directly connected in the source. The source states, “There are many regions in our country that are rich in resources but these are included in economically backward regions”. It then explains this phenomenon: “Therefore, resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate technological development and institutional changes”. This explanation clearly links the lack of technology and institutional changes (R) to the economic backwardness of resource-rich regions (A).

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and R provides a comprehensive explanation for A. The source states, “Resource planning is a complex process which involves”, and then proceeds to list the intricate steps detailed in R: “(i) identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources. (ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resource development plans. (iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans”. These multiple, detailed steps clearly illustrate the complexity.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements from the source. A is supported by “India has made concerted efforts for achieving the goals of resource planning right from the First Five Year Plan launched after Independence”. R is supported by “The history of colonisation reveals that rich resources in colonies were the main attractions for the foreign invaders”. While both are facts from the chapter related to resources, the history of colonization (R) does not explain why India started resource planning after Independence (A). They are separate historical and policy facts.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. The source states, “But irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems” (A). It then immediately states the solution: “To overcome these problems, resource conservation at various levels is important” (R). Thus, R directly addresses how to mitigate the issues described in A, making it a correct explanation.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements from the source. The source states, “This had been the main concern of the leaders and thinkers in the past” (A). It then provides Gandhiji as a specific example, quoting him to illustrate his concern: “For example, Gandhiji was very apt in voicing his concern about resource conservation…” (R). Thus, R provides a specific instance that supports and explains A.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. A is supported by “At the international level, the Club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in a more systematic way in 1968.” R is supported by “The seminal contribution with respect to resource conservation at the global level was made by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987. This report introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated it as a means for resource conservation.” While both are true facts about international efforts in resource conservation, R describes a later development and a specific approach, not the reason why the Club of Rome made its advocacy.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and R provides a direct explanation for A. The source states, “He was against mass production and wanted to replace it with the production by the masses”. The reason (R) clearly states the alternative Gandhiji preferred, which inherently explains why he was against mass production; he envisioned a different, more distributed model of production.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and R provides context for A. The source states, “The seminal contribution with respect to resource conservation at the global level was made by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987. This report introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated it as a means for resource conservation, which was subsequently published in a book entitled Our Common Future”. The introduction of ‘Sustainable Development’ (R) was the seminal contribution that led to the report’s significance and its subsequent publication (A), making R a foundational explanation for the importance of the report mentioned in A.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements that are directly linked in the source. The source states, “Thus, land is a natural resource of utmost importance”. It then immediately provides the reasons for its importance: “It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems”. Therefore, R provides a comprehensive explanation of why land is of utmost importance.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. A is supported by “India has land under a variety of relief features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains and islands.” R is supported by “About 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry.” While both are true facts about India’s land, the percentage of plains (R) does not explain that India has various relief features (A). R gives a specific detail about one type of relief feature.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements directly from the source. A is supported by “Mountains account for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the country”. R is supported by “and ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.” The reason (R) explains the significance or benefits of mountains, which are inherent properties related to their existence and contribution to the land features described in A. It provides a deeper understanding of why mountains are important, beyond just their coverage area.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and linked in the source. A states the factual percentage: “About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region.” R then explains the significance of these plateaus: “It possesses rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.” R provides the valuable characteristics that make the plateau region important, thus explaining its contribution to India’s resources mentioned in the context of land features.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true statements, and R is a direct consequence and explanation of A. The source states, “However, land is an asset of a finite magnitude”. It then draws a conclusion based on this finiteness: “therefore, it is important to use the available land for various purposes with careful planning”. The finite nature of land (A) logically necessitates careful planning (R) to ensure its sustainable use.

Explanation: The assertion (A) is false because the source explicitly states, “Land use data, however, is available only for 93 per cent of the total geographical area”. The reason (R) is true and explains why the data is not 100%: “because the land use reporting for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully. Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed”.

Explanation: Both the assertion (A) and the reason (R) are true and R provides the classification context for A. The source lists “Land not available for cultivation” as a land use category, and under it, states “(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.”. Thus, A lists examples, and R accurately places these examples within their classification.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Permanent pastures have also decreased. How can we feed our huge cattle population on this pasture land and what are the consequences of it?” This implicitly links the decrease in pastures (A) to the difficulty in feeding cattle and the implications for animal husbandry (R).

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true: “Fallow lands: This is cultivable land which is left uncultivated for a short period (one or less than one agricultural year) to allow the soil to regain fertility.” Reason (R) is false: “Current fallow: Left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year.” The statement in R refers to “Other than current fallow (old fallow): Left uncultivated for the past one to five agricultural years,” not current fallow.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is false. NSA is “Area sown once in an agricultural year.” Reason (R) is true: “Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus Net Sown Area is known as Gross Cropped Area.”

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true. The source states, “The forest area in the country is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area, as outlined in the National Forest Policy (1952).” Reason (R) is false. The source does not mention any unsuitability of land for forests; rather, it highlights the deviation from the policy goal and its ecological implications.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true. The source defines wasteland as “land put to other non-agricultural uses includes rocky, arid and desert areas”. Reason (R) is false. The source clearly distinguishes “wasteland” from “land put to non-agricultural uses,” which includes buildings, roads, etc. Wasteland is unproductive land, while non-agricultural uses are productive human interventions.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “The Net Sown Area is about 54 per cent of the total reporting area. It varies greatly from state to state.” It then implicitly attributes this variation to factors like “physiography, climate, soils,” which influence land suitability for cultivation.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is false. The Net Sown Area can change due to various factors. Reason (R) is true and explains how it *could* change, countering the stagnation idea. While the direct change isn’t stated, the concept of technology expanding cultivable land is consistent with the chapter.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true: “Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land degradation.” Reason (R) is false. Land degradation is often human-induced or exacerbated, and its prevention and mitigation are key goals of resource conservation efforts.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R correctly explains the composition of the degraded land mentioned in A. The source states, “At present, there are about 130 million hectares of degraded land in India. Approximately 28 per cent of this belongs to the category of forest degraded area, 56 per cent of it is water eroded area…”

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete leaving deep scars and traces of over-burdening. In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha deforestation due to mining has caused severe land degradation.” This shows that deforestation caused by mining (R) leads to land degradation (A).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source notes “Overgrazing in states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra is one of the main reasons for land degradation.” The process of overgrazing (R) directly leads to the degradation (A) by removing protective vegetation.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R correctly explains A. The source states, “In the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to waterlogging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.” The consequences listed in R directly describe how over-irrigation causes degradation in A.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is false. The source refers to “Mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration of water into the soil after it settles down on the land.” This indicates it’s a significant, not minor, source of land degradation. Reason (R) is true and describes the mechanism of degradation caused by mineral processing.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “In recent years, industrial effluents and wastes have become a major source of land and water pollution in many parts of the country.” The reason is that these effluents are often “discharged untreated,” causing the contamination.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source lists “Afforestation and proper management of grazing can help to some extent” in controlling land degradation (A). It also states “Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land degradation in arid areas” (R). While both are valid methods and statements, R is an example of a method, not the direct explanation for why afforestation and grazing management are effective broadly. It lists another solution.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source lists “Proper management of waste lands” and “control of mining activities” among the measures for land conservation. However, the control of mining activities (R) is a separate measure from the management of wastlands (A), not an explanation for it.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Treatment of industrial and water wastes before their discharge can reduce land and water degradation in industrial and suburban areas.” The reason for this necessity (A) is that these untreated wastes “contaminate the soil and groundwater” (R), leading to degradation.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source identifies over-irrigation as a cause of degradation in these states, specifically mentioning “waterlogging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.” Therefore, controlling it (A) is crucial because of these harmful effects (R).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on earth.” R directly provides the reasons for soil’s importance as a resource.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is false. Soil formation is a very slow process. Reason (R) is true and directly contradicts A, stating the actual speed: “It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few centimetres in depth.”

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source lists “changes in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc.” as factors in soil formation (A). It also mentions “Decomposition activities of organic matter” as a factor (R). While both are contributing factors, R describes one type of factor, not the overall explanation for A, which broadly mentions various natural forces.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source lists “Relief, parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important factors in the formation of soil” (A, with time implicitly included). It also states “various forces of nature such as change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of soil” (R, focusing on time and its effect on horizons). Both are true factors of soil formation, but R is a separate, although related, factor (time) from the list in A, not a direct explanation for the entire list.

Explanation: Both A and R are true, and R explains A. The source states, “This is the most widespread and important soil.” It then immediately explains its formation: “These soils are derived from the deposition of alluvium by the three important Himalayan river systems—the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.” Its widespread nature and importance are due to its formation process.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. A is supported by: “These soils also extend in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri Rivers.” R is a general geographical fact about delta formation. While alluvial soils are found in deltas because of the deposition process, R does not explain why *alluvial soils* are found *specifically* in these deltas as much as it explains delta formation itself.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. A is supported by “These soils consist of various proportions of sand, silt and clay.” R is supported by “As we move inland towards the river valleys, soil particles appear somewhat bigger in size.” While both are characteristics of alluvial soil, R describes a variation in particle size based on location, not a direct explanation for why the soil contains a mix of sand, silt, and clay.

Explanation: Both A and R are false. The source states: “According to their age, alluvial soils are classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The Bangar soil has higher concentration of Kankar nodules than the Khadar. The Khadar has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.” Therefore, A incorrectly identifies Khadar as old alluvial, and R incorrectly identifies Bhangar as new alluvial.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “These soils are very fertile. Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.” The richness in these nutrients (R) directly explains their high fertility (A).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Due to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated.” The high fertility (R) is the direct reason for the intensive cultivation and dense population (A).

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source states, “These soils are black in colour and are also known as Regur soils. Black soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.” While both statements are true, R explains why it’s called “black cotton soil,” but not why it’s called “Regur soil” (A). They are two distinct attributes and names.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “The Black soils are typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan plateau and are made up of lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south-east direction along the Godavari and Krishna valleys.” The formation from lava flows (basalt rocks) (R) directly explains their presence in the Deccan trap region (A).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “They are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition, they are rich in soil nutrients… These soils are made up of extremely fine i.e., clayey material. They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.” The clayey material and its properties (R) directly explain the moisture-holding capacity (A).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan plateau. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.” The reddish color is due to iron diffusion, and when hydrated, it looks yellow, which is related to the presence of iron (ferrous minerals) and hydration.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true: “Red and yellow soils are found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the Middle Ganga Plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.” Reason (R) is false. Red and yellow soils develop in areas of *low* rainfall, as stated in the previous definition of these soils (“develop on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall”).

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true: “Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season.” Reason (R) is false. The source states, “This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of the soil is very low because most of the microorganisms, particularly decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.” So, while it’s from intense leaching, it has *low* humus content, not high.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true: “Laterite soils are generally infertile and suitable only for very limited cultivation unless properly fertilised.” Reason (R) is false: “Humus content of the soil is very low because most of the microorganisms, particularly decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.” Leaching removes nutrients, making them infertile, not rich in nutrients.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. A is supported by “Laterite soils are mainly found in Western Ghats, particularly in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. These soils are also found in the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.” R is supported by “These soils are useful for growing tea and coffee on the western ghats, particularly in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.” While both are true facts about Laterite soils, R describes a use case for these soils, not an explanation for their geographical distribution.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R provides context for A. The source states, “Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut.” While the source doesn’t explicitly state “high rainfall and specific nutrient conditions” as the *reason*, it implies that these conditions are what make the soil suitable. Given that laterite soils develop in areas with high rainfall and leaching (which impacts nutrients), it’s a logical explanation for their suitability for certain crops like cashews.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.” It then explains: “In some areas the salt content is very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil lacks humus and moisture.” The dry climate, high temperature, and rapid evaporation (R) directly lead to the soil’s lack of humus and moisture, influencing its sandy and saline nature (A).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar due to the increasing calcium content downwards. The Kankar layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water.” The increasing calcium content (R) causes the Kankar layer (A), which in turn restricts water infiltration.

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source states, “After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been in the case of Western Rajasthan.” While R is a true example demonstrating A, it does not explain *why* proper irrigation makes the soils cultivable (e.g., by providing moisture and dissolving salts). It only provides evidence.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “These soils are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.” It then explains, “They are heterogeneous in nature and their characteristics vary according to the mountain environment where they are formed.” The variation in texture (A) is a direct consequence of the varying mountain environment (R).

Explanation: Both A and R are true. The source states, “In the Himalayan region, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content.” So both parts of the assertion (denudation, acidic with low humus) are true, and both relate to Himalayan forest soils. However, the acidity and low humus content (R) do not directly *cause* denudation (A). They are both characteristics resulting from the environment.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.” This fertility (A) is due to the deposition of rich materials by rivers in these areas (R), making R a correct explanation.

Explanation: Both A and R are false. This statement describes the properties of *Black Soil*, not Alluvial Soil. Black soils are known for their self-aeration and cracking when dry.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season. This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain… After adopting appropriate soil conservation techniques particularly in the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut.” While the source doesn’t explicitly link “formation process” to “hard and suitable for construction”, the origin of the word ‘later’ (brick) and the characteristics of laterite implies this suitability. The intense leaching leaves behind a hard, brick-like material. Therefore, R is a logical explanation.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source defines them: “According to their age, alluvial soils are classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The Bangar soil has higher concentration of Kankar nodules than the Khadar. The Khadar has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.” The distinction (A) is explained by their age and characteristics (R), which relate to their position relative to current river activities.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So, these soils are difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first shower or during the pre-monsoon period.” The characteristic of becoming sticky when wet (R) directly explains why they are difficult to cultivate and require specific timing for tilling (A).

Explanation: Assertion (A) is false. Red and Yellow soils are not naturally highly fertile. Reason (R) is true. The source states, “These soils are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.” This lack of nutrients limits their natural fertility, contradicting the assertion that they are suitable for a wide range of crops without modification.

Explanation: Assertion (A) is true: “The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion.” Reason (R) is false: “The processes of soil formation and erosion go on simultaneously and normally, there is a balance between the two. Sometimes, this balance is disturbed due to human activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc., while natural forces like wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion.” The balance is often *disturbed*, not always stable.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R is a consequence of A. The source states, “The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land in the Chambal basin.” The formation of gullies (A) directly leads to the land becoming bad land (R), making R a correct consequence and explanation for the severity of the erosion.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away. This is known as sheet erosion.” The washing away of the topsoil (R) is the defining characteristic and consequence of water flowing as a sheet (A).

Explanation: Assertion (A) is false. Wind erosion occurs in “flat or sloping areas,” but critically, it’s in dry, often barren regions, not “wet” areas. Reason (R) is true and accurately describes the mechanism of wind erosion: “Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind erosion.”

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source mentions human activities like “deforestation” as disturbing the balance between soil formation and erosion. The underlying reason for this is that plant roots hold soil, and removing trees (deforestation) makes the soil vulnerable to erosion.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R provides context and confirms A. The source states, “Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is called contour ploughing.” So, the action (A) is explained by the technique (R), and R clarifies what A refers to as a conservation method.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western and Central Himalayas have well developed terrace farming.” The reason for its effectiveness (R) is that terraces create steps that reduce the gradient, slow down water flow, and allow for better water absorption, thereby restricting erosion.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Large fields can be divided into strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as strip cropping.” The purpose of leaving grass strips (A) is precisely to break the force of wind and water (R), thereby preventing erosion.

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Planting lines of trees to create shelter. These shelter belts have contributed significantly to the stabilisation of sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in Western India.” The creation of shelter belts (A) is a technique whose purpose is the stabilization of sand dunes and soil conservation (R).

Explanation: Both A and R are true and R explains A. The source states, “Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.” The purpose of constructing contour barriers (A) is achieved by the method described in R, where the materials and trenches work together to collect water and reduce erosion.