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Frédéric Sorrieu’s Vision of the World (1848)
🖼️ The Dream Painting:
- In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created 4 visual prints showing his dream of a world of democratic and social Republics.
- The first print shows:
- Men and women of all classes and ages marching in a long procession.
- They pay homage to the statue of Liberty.
- Liberty is personified as a female figure with:
- A torch (symbol of Enlightenment)
- A Charter of the Rights of Man (symbol of rights and freedom)
🏛️ Symbols and Messages:
- Broken remains of absolutist institutions lie on the ground – signifying the end of monarchy and tyranny.
- People are grouped by nations, shown through:
- National flags
- Traditional costumes
Nations in the Procession
🚩 Who’s Leading?
- United States and Switzerland – already nation-states by 1848.
- France with the Revolutionary tricolour follows them.
Germany:
- Carrying black, red, and gold flag.
- Not yet united in 1848.
- Flag symbolized liberal hopes to unite German-speaking regions.
🌍 Others in the March:
- Austria, Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, Russia
👼 From the Heavens:
- Christ, saints, and angels watch the procession.
- Symbol of fraternity among nations.
What This Chapter Explores
- How nationalism in 19th-century Europe led to:
- Fall of multi-national dynastic empires
- Rise of modern nation-states
- A nation-state: A region where citizens share:
- Common identity
- Shared history or descent
- This commonness was not natural, but built through:
- Struggles
- Leadership
- People’s movements
The French Revolution and Nationalism
🗽 Birth of Nationalism – 1789
- The French Revolution (1789) was the first clear expression of nationalism.
- France, then ruled by an absolute monarch, transferred sovereignty to citizens.
- It declared: “The people will form the nation and shape its destiny.”
🧩 Steps to Build National Identity
The French revolutionaries took major steps to instill a collective identity:
- Introduced concepts like:
- La patrie (the fatherland)
- Le citoyen (the citizen)
- Replaced royal flag with the tricolour.
- Renamed the Estates General as the National Assembly.
- Composed new hymns, took oaths, and honoured martyrs in the nation’s name.
- Centralised administration created:
- Uniform laws
- Standard weights and measures_
- Abolition of internal tariffs
- Promoted Parisian French as the common national language.
- Mission declared: Liberate Europe from despotism and help create nation-states.
🌍 Spread of Nationalism Across Europe
📚 Jacobin Clubs and Youth Movements
- Educated middle classes and students across Europe created Jacobin clubs.
- Helped prepare the ground for French revolutionary armies.
- French armies spread nationalist ideas into:
- Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy.
👑 Napoleon and Nationalism
⚖️ Napoleon’s Role: A Mix of Reform and Control
- Though he restored monarchy, Napoleon:
- Carried revolutionary ideals in administration.
- Introduced the Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code):
- Abolished privileges by birth
- Ensured equality before the law
- Secured right to property
🛠️ Reforms in Conquered Lands
- Applied reforms to:
- Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, Germany
- Changes included:
- Simplified administrative divisions
- Abolished feudalism
- Freed peasants from serfdom
- Ended guild restrictions in towns
- Improved transport & communication
- Standardised laws, currency, weights and measures
⚠️ Mixed Reactions to French Rule
- Initial welcome in cities like:
- Brussels, Milan, Warsaw, Mainz
- Enthusiasm faded due to:
- Increased taxation
- Censorship
- Forced army conscription
- People realised that administrative reform came without political freedom.
The Making of Nationalism in Europe
🗺️ Europe Before Nation-States
🧭 Fragmented Political Map (Mid-1700s)
- No modern nation-states like Germany, Italy, or Switzerland.
- The region was divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons.
- Each territory was ruled autonomously by different monarchs.
🧬 Diverse Peoples, No Common Identity
- Eastern and Central Europe were ruled by autocratic monarchies.
- Populations were:
- Ethnically diverse
- Spoke different languages
- Practised varied cultures
- People did not see themselves as one nation.
🏰 The Habsburg Empire: A Patchwork Puzzle
- Ruled over Austria-Hungary, it was multinational and multi-lingual.
📌 Key Regions:
| Region | Dominant Group or Language |
|---|---|
| Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland (Alpine regions) | German-speaking aristocracy |
| Bohemia | German-speaking aristocracy |
| Lombardy & Venetia | Italian-speaking |
| Hungary | Magyar and other dialects |
| Galicia | Polish-speaking aristocracy |
👨🌾 Other Groups:
- Bohemians, Slovaks (North)
- Slovenes (Carniola)
- Croats (South)
- Roumans (Transylvania, East)
🧷 Only Unifying Factor:
- Common allegiance to the Emperor
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
👑 The Landed Aristocracy: Power & Privilege
- Dominated social and political life across Europe.
- Landed aristocrats owned estates in the countryside and townhouses in cities.
- Lived a common lifestyle:
- Spoke French in diplomacy and society.
- Intermarried across regions and countries.
- Despite their power, they were numerically few.
🚜 The Majority: Peasantry
- Made up the largest portion of the population.
- Landholding patterns:
- Western Europe: Land farmed by small owners and tenants.
- Eastern & Central Europe: Large estates worked by serfs (unfree peasants).
🏭 Rise of the New Social Classes
📈 Impact of Industrialisation
- Started in England (late 1700s).
- Spread to France and German states in the 1800s.
- Led to growth of:
- Towns
- Trade
- Commercial classes (based on market production)
🧑🏭 New Classes Emerged:
- Working class
- Middle class: Industrialists, businessmen, professionals
🧠 The Middle Class & Nationalism
- Mostly educated, liberal and urban.
- Supported abolition of aristocratic privileges.
- Played a key role in spreading the idea of national unity.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
🗽 Meaning of Liberalism
- Derived from Latin liber meaning free.
- Supported by the middle class in early 19th-century Europe.
- Meant:
- Individual freedom
- Equality before the law
- Government by consent
🏛️ Political Ideals of Liberalism
- End of autocracy and clerical privileges
- Rule by constitution and parliament
- Private property seen as sacred
- Suffrage (right to vote) not universal:
- Only property-owning men could vote.
- Women and non-propertied men were excluded.
- Jacobins briefly gave all adult males the vote, later reversed by Napoleon.
💼 Economic Liberalism
- Called for:
- Free markets
- No state restrictions on goods and capital
- Middle class demanded:
- Unification of economic territories
- Removal of customs duties, currency chaos, and inconsistent weights/measures
🚂 Example: German Confederation
- 39 small states, each with:
- Own currency
- Own weights and measures
- Multiple customs barriers
- A merchant from Hamburg to Nuremberg paid ~5% duty at 11 stops!
🔗 Formation of Zollverein (1834)
- A customs union initiated by Prussia.
- Goals:
- Abolish tariffs
- Reduce currencies from 30+ to 2
- Built railways to increase mobility.
- Sparked economic nationalism, which strengthened nationalist sentiments
A New Conservatism after 1815
⚔️ Background: Post-Napoleon Europe
- After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, European governments feared revolution.
- They adopted conservatism, an ideology focused on preserving traditional institutions:
- Monarchy
- Church
- Social hierarchies
- Private property
- Family system
🛡️ Conservative Beliefs
- Did not want to go back to pre-1789 society.
- Believed in modernization to strengthen monarchy:
- Efficient bureaucracy
- Modern army
- Strong economy
- Abolition of feudalism and serfdom
🤝 The Congress of Vienna (1815)
- Held in Vienna, led by Austrian Chancellor Metternich.
- Attended by Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria.
- Aimed to undo Napoleonic changes and restore old order.
✍️ Key Provisions of the Treaty of Vienna:
| Action | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Bourbon monarchy restored | Return to pre-revolution France |
| France lost annexed territories | Reduce future French aggression |
| Buffer states created on the boundaries of France | Netherlands (north), Genoa to Piedmont (south) |
| Territory redistribution | Russia → part of Poland Prussia → part of Saxony Austria → control of northern Italy |
| German Confederation (39 states) | Retained (no changes) |
🔒 Features of Conservative Regimes
- Autocratic rule: No checks on monarchs.
- No tolerance for criticism or dissent.
- Strict censorship:
- Controlled press, books, plays, songs.
- Suppressed ideas of liberty, equality, and freedom.
📢 Resistance from Liberals
- Inspired by the French Revolution.
- Liberal-nationalists demanded:
- Freedom of the press
- End to censorship
- Political participation and constitutional government
The Revolutionaries (After 1815)
🔥 Why Revolutionaries Emerged
- After the Congress of Vienna (1815), conservative monarchies returned to power.
- Repression of liberal ideas like liberty, equality, and nationalism began.
- Liberal-nationalists went underground to continue their work in secret.
- Secret societies were formed to:
- Train revolutionaries.
- Spread the message of freedom, liberty, and nation-states.
🕵️ Secret Societies and Their Goals
- Goal: End monarchy, promote democracy, and unify fragmented regions into nation-states.
- Belief: Freedom and nationalism go hand in hand.
- Spread across Germany, France, Switzerland, Poland, and Italy.
Giuseppe Mazzini – The Torchbearer
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Born | 1805, Genoa, Italy |
| Joined | Secret society Carbonari |
| Exiled at 24 | For a failed revolution in Liguria (1831) |
| Founded | Young Italy (Marseilles) & Young Europe (Berne) |
| Beliefs | – Nations = Natural units of humanity – Italy must become one unified republic |
| Influence | Inspired youth across Europe to oppose monarchy and fight for democracy |
| Feared by | Conservatives like Metternich, who called him “most dangerous enemy of our social order” |
The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
As conservative regimes tried to stay in control, liberalism and nationalism started fueling revolutions across Europe — especially in:
- Italian & German states
- Ottoman Empire provinces
- Ireland & Poland
These uprisings were mostly led by the educated middle-class elite, including:
- Professors
- Teachers
- Clerks
- Businessmen
July Revolution of 1830 – France
- Bourbon kings (restored after 1815) were overthrown
- A constitutional monarchy was formed under Louis Philippe
- Famous quote by Metternich:
“When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.”
📌 Impact:
- Sparked a revolt in Brussels
- Led to Belgium’s independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands
Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)
- Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century
- Inspired by revolutionary nationalism
- Supported by:
- Greeks in exile
- Western European artists & poets lauded Greece as the “cradle of European civilisation” (mobilized opinion).
🖋️ Lord Byron (English poet):
- Funded the Greek cause
- Died of fever in 1824 during the war
🕊️ Result:
- Treaty of Constantinople (1832) officially recognised Greece as an independent nation
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
Romanticism & Nationalism = Culture as the Soul of the Nation
What Is Romanticism?
Romanticism = A cultural movement that inspired nationalism by glorifying emotions, folklore, and tradition, not just logic and science.
- Opposed Enlightenment’s obsession with reason & rationality
- Celebrated intuition, mysticism, and the spirit of the people
- Artists, poets, and musicians shaped identity by evoking pride in shared culture
German Roots: Das Volk & Volksgeist
“The soul of a nation lies in its people, not its rulers.”
- 💡 Johann Gottfried Herder:
- Real German culture lives among the common people (das volk)
- Folk songs, dances, and poetry = true national spirit (volksgeist)
- Nationalism spread through:
- Collection of folk tales
- Promotion of vernacular language
- Revival of oral traditions
Poland: Nation Without a State
Culture became resistance when borders disappeared.
- Poland partitioned by Russia, Prussia, Austria
- 🇵🇱 No independence, but national spirit lived on through:
- 🎶 Karol Kurpinski’s music: Turned folk dances (e.g., mazurka, polonaise) into symbols of nationalism
- 📚 Polish language: Suppressed by Russia but preserved in:
- Church services
- Religious teachings
- Underground education
- 🛐 Clergy became cultural warriors:
- Used Polish to preach despite bans
- Many jailed or sent to Siberia
- 🗣️ Language = Weapon of resistance
Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
“When hunger walks the streets, revolution is not far behind.”
Economic Crisis in Europe (1830s–1840s)
- Population Explosion: Rapid growth led to job scarcity
- Rural to Urban Migration: Cities grew crowded with slum dwellers
- Industrial Competition:
- England’s machine-made goods outcompeted home-based producers on the continent
- Worst hit: textile workers in partly mechanised regions
- Agrarian Distress:
- Feudal dues still burdened peasants in aristocratic regions
- Bad harvests & food price rise = widespread pauperism
1848: Year of Revolutions
France Uprising (February 1848)
- Triggered by food shortage and unemployment
- Barricades in Paris → King Louis Philippe fled
- Outcome:
- A new Republic declared
- Universal male suffrage (21+)
- Right to work granted
- National workshops set up to provide employment
Silesian Weavers’ Revolt (1845)
A powerful example of industrial exploitation → mass revolt
- Silesia (Prussia): Cotton weaving = main livelihood
- Contractors reduced payment rates, exploiting job scarcity
- Workers demanded higher wages → met with threats
- Workers’ reaction:
- Stormed contractor’s mansion → destroyed property
- Broke into storehouse, tore cloth into shreds
- Army called in → 11 weavers shot dead
- Reported by journalist Wilhelm Wolff
1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
Liberals = Educated Middle Class
Goals of the Liberal Middle Class
- Demand for:
- Constitutionalism
- National unification
- Freedom of press & association
- Key regions involved:
- Germany
- Italy
- Poland
- Austro-Hungarian Empire
The Frankfurt Parliament (Germany)
The first attempt to unify Germany under constitutional monarchy
- 18 May 1848: 831 elected reps from across German states gathered at Church of St Paul, Frankfurt.
- A constitution was drafted for a unified Germany led by a monarch controlled by parliament.
- Crown offered to King Friedrich Wilhelm IV (Prussia) – he rejected it.
- Why it failed?
- Rejection by aristocracy and military
- Middle-class ignored working-class demands
- Popular support declined
- Assembly disbanded by force
👩🦰 Women in the Revolution
- Women:
- Formed political associations
- Founded newspapers
- Participated in demonstrations
- However:
- Denied voting rights
- Allowed only as observers in Frankfurt Parliament
🔄 Aftermath & Impact
- Conservative forces crushed revolts, but…
- Old order couldn’t return.
- Monarchs learned: Permanent repression would fail.
- Post-1848 reforms:
- Serfdom abolished in Russia and Habsburg Empire
- Hungary granted autonomy in 1867
The Making of Germany
Germany: Nation-Building Through the Army
🧨 From 1848 Liberalism to Conservative Nationalism
- 1848: German middle-class liberals attempted unification via a parliamentary system.
- Outcome? Crushed by:
- The monarchy
- The military
- Prussian aristocrats (Junkers= Large land owners)
🧠 Shift in Nationalism
After 1848, nationalism = state power, not democracy.
- Conservatives now used nationalism to:
- Strengthen monarchy
- Expand influence over Europe
🧱 Role of Prussia and Otto von Bismarck
- Prussia assumed leadership of German unification.
- Otto von Bismarck (Chief Minister of Prussia):
- Led unification via “Blood and Iron”
- Relied on Prussian army and bureaucracy
⚔️ Wars That United Germany
| War | Year | Opponent | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| Danish War | 1864 | Denmark | Prussia wins |
| Austro-Prussian War | 1866 | Austria | Prussia wins |
| Franco-Prussian War | 1870 | France | Prussia wins → Final unification step |
👑 1871: Birth of the German Empire
- 18 Jan 1871: In the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles:
- King William I of Prussia declared Kaiser (Emperor) of unified Germany.
- Attendees: German princes, Prussian army reps, Bismarck.
⚙️ Post-Unification Reforms
- Emphasis on:
- Modern currency
- Banking systems
- Unified legal & judicial systems
- Prussian systems became the model for all of Germany.
The Unification Of Italy – From Fragmented States to a Unified Nation
🧩 Political Puzzle Before Unification
- Italy in mid-19th century = 7 separate states
- North → Controlled by Austrian Habsburgs
- Centre → Ruled by the Pope
- South → Under Bourbon kings of Spain
- Only Sardinia-Piedmont ruled by an Italian princely house
- Language barrier: No standard Italian, many local dialects
🧠 Mazzini & Young Italy Movement
- Giuseppe Mazzini: Revolutionary thinker of the 1830s
- Formed secret society: Young Italy
- Vision: Unified Republican Italy
- 1831 & 1848 revolts failed → task shifted to Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II
🎩 Cavour – The Diplomatic Brain
- Count Camillo di Cavour: Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont
- A conservative, not a revolutionary
- Spoke French better than Italian
- Crafted a smart alliance with France → Defeated Austria in 1859
🗡️ Garibaldi & the Redshirts
- Giuseppe Garibaldi: Charismatic leader of volunteer army (Redshirts)
- 1860: Marched into South Italy & Kingdom of Two Sicilies
- Supported by peasants → drove out Spanish rulers
👑 1861: A Nation is Born
- Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed King of Unified Italy
- BUT…
- High illiteracy meant most peasants didn’t understand nationalism
- Many thought “Italia” was “La Talia” – the king’s wife!
The Strange Case of Britain
(Nation-Building Without Revolution)
🏛️ Not a Revolution, But a Gradual Process
- Unlike France, Britain’s nation-state wasn’t born out of sudden revolutions.
- It was shaped over centuries through parliamentary power and English dominance.
🧬 Before Nationhood: A Patchwork of Identities
- The British Isles were once home to ethnic identities:
- English, Welsh, Scots, Irish
- Each had distinct languages, cultures, and political systems.
🔗 The Act of Union (1707)
- England + Scotland = United Kingdom of Great Britain
- England used its wealth and power to:
- Dominate the Scottish parliament
- Suppress Scottish culture (e.g. Gaelic language, national dress)
- Repress Highlanders whenever they resisted English control
Ireland: A Tale of Suppression
- Ireland was divided:
- Protestants (favored by England)
- Catholics (majority, but oppressed)
- Catholic revolts were crushed:
- 1798: Rebellion by Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen failed.
- 1801: Ireland forcibly joined the United Kingdom.
🏴☠️ Making of the “British Nation”
- The dominant English culture became the face of the union:
- 🏁 Union Jack (British flag)
- 🎵 God Save the King (national anthem)
- 🗣️ English language
- Other cultures survived as subordinates, not equals.
Visualising the Nation
Giving a Face to the Nation
🖼️ Problem Faced by Artists
- Easy to depict a ruler with a portrait or statue.
- But how to show a nation, which is an abstract idea?
👩 Personification of Nation
- Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries began to personify nations.
- Nations were shown as female figures.
- These figures were not real women, but allegories (symbols with meaning).
📌 Allegory = Giving abstract ideas a human form to make them relatable.
The French Example: Marianne
- During the French Revolution, female allegories stood for:
- Liberty 🕊️ – shown with a red cap or broken chain.
- Justice ⚖️ – a blindfolded woman holding weighing scales.
- Republic 👥 – representing the people’s power.
- The female figure of France was named Marianne:
- Symbolised a people’s nation.
- Wore symbols of Liberty & Republic:
- Red cap, tricolour, cockade.
- Statues of Marianne were placed in public squares.
- Her image appeared on coins and stamps.
The German Example: Germania
- Germania personified the German nation.
- Wore a crown of oak leaves 🌿 — the oak symbolised heroism in Germany.
Quick Recap
- Nations were given human faces through female allegories.
- These helped people emotionally connect with the nation.
- The figures became tools to spread national unity and patriotism.
Nationalism & Imperialism (Late 19th Century)
⚔️ Shift in Nationalism (Post-1871)
- Earlier Nationalism = Idealistic + Liberal-Democratic
- Later Nationalism = Became narrow, intolerant, and aggressive
- Nationalist groups = Willing to go to war
- European powers used nationalism to push imperialist goals
🌋 The Balkan Crisis: Hotbed of Tension
📍 What is the Balkans?
- Region with ethnic diversity and geographical variation
- Included: Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro
- Majority population: Slavs
🏰 Ottoman Empire & Its Decline
- Much of Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire
- Faced decline due to:
- Spread of romantic nationalism
- Failed modernisation & reforms
- One by one, subject nations began to declare independence
🧠 Key Idea: Balkan people used history to justify claims — saying they had once been independent before foreign rule.
⚔️ Why So Explosive?
- Balkan nationalities = Jealous of each other
- Each aimed to gain more territory
- Area turned into a conflict zone with overlapping claims
🏴☠️ Big Power Rivalries in the Balkans
- Powers involved: Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary
- Each wanted to:
- Counter others’ influence
- Expand own control
- Led to a chain of wars ➡️ culminated in World War I
🚫 Nationalism + Imperialism = Disaster (1914)
- Aggressive nationalism merged with imperialism
- Created conditions that led to WWI
✊ Rise of Anti-Imperial Movements Worldwide
- Colonised nations began nationalist struggles for freedom
- These movements:
- Wanted independent nation-states
- Built around unity against imperialism
- Each region developed its own version of nationalism
🔑 Universal Impact: The idea of the nation-state became global and seen as natural.
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